Rethinking Islam & the West
Page 3
Lastly, we have the Platonic triad. Plato formulated the principle of the need to balance three faculties within the human being, namely, those of intellect, anger and desire – a principle that was adopted and developed by both Christianity and Islam. If intellect controls anger and desire, there is peace and harmony; if anger or desire control intellect, conflict and chaos ensue. This triad relates to the individual soul and is also mirrored in the vocational triad, with intellect corresponding to the scholar, anger to the warrior and desire to the merchant. The Platonic triad has remained fundamental to Islam and Christianity, being central to the disciplining of the soul. However, the reign of the warrior in the West unleashed a flood of violence and anger upon the world, and this was joined by the unfettering of desire with the ascendancy of the merchant, finally leading to the overturning of Christian morality.
Appearing within the fabric of the chapters are the pairs, the natural balance between heaven and earth, night and day, inner and outer, male and female and other pairs that encompass our existence.
We have also introduced the term ‘dynamic equilibrium’, which comes from the material sciences and is defined as ‘a state of balance between continuing processes,’ or ‘a system in a steady state’, to describe the dynamic which maintains mīzān or balance. It is the incapacity to understand this dynamic that has led the modern to regard pre-modern, traditional cultures and civilisations as static and stagnant. Each traditional civilisation contains a sacred centre which is unchanging, and it is this sacred centre that contains its life-force. When it is compromised, the civilisation runs down. Uniquely, modernity has dispensed with a sacred centre and has turned perpetual change into its dynamic.
Islamic civilisation has an incredibly powerful sacred centre. Throughout Islamic history, whatever forces caused disruption for a time, the unchanging core has always brought the civilisation back into a state of balance and stability. This unchanging and constant reality is centred on the Revelation of the Qur’an and the life of the Prophet, and emanating from these, the Five Pillars of Islam. The establishment of all of this belonged to the twenty-three years of the Prophetic mission and has remained constant and unchanged, until today.
The mīzān perspective embodies two important principles: the ‘mereological’ and the ‘chthonic’. The mereological principle states that ‘the whole can contain the part, but the part cannot contain the whole’. This principle, I argue, helps to explain the historical success of Islamic civilisation, as well as the aberrational nature of modernity. The chthonic principle states that ‘the deeper you go into matter, the greater the forces that are released’; we see the reality of this principle being played out today in the laboratories of scientists.
In the chapters which follow, we shall see how, when Islam and the West are viewed through the lens of mīzān or balance, an entirely different story unfolds: the Western trajectory can be seen to lead inexorably to the Age of Crises, whilst a new understanding of Islam and its civilisation emerges.
1
SOVEREIGNTY
ISLAM
WHAT HAS BEEN defined above as the ‘ontological triad’ depends on the maintenance within a civilisation of balance in the essential relationship between three levels of existence, those of the unseen, the human and the natural world. In Islam, the mīzān is predicated on upholding the authority and sovereignty of God as Creator and Ruler of the universe. From the mīzān perspective, we are not talking about a balance between equals; rather it is through the sovereignty of God that balance and harmony is maintained in the created world.
In the Qur’an, the Creator’s authority is unequivocally stated in this verse from the sura entitled al-Mulk (‘Sovereignty’ or ‘Dominion’):
Blessed is He in whose hand is the dominion, and He has power over all things. (Qur’an 67:1)
This is a theme that is stated time and time again in the Qur’an, reminding humanity of the divine omnipotence. The all-encompassing power of God over His creation is further described in the Throne verse, which according to a saying of the Prophet Muhammad is the greatest verse in the Qurʾan:
In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
God! There is no god but He, the Living, the Self-subsisting.
Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him.
To Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth.
Who is there that shall intercede with Him save by His leave?
He knows what is before them and what is behind them.
And they encompass nothing of His knowledge, save that which He wills.
His throne extends over the heavens and the earth,
The preserving of them wearies Him not,
He is the Sublime, the Tremendous. (Qur’an 2:255)
The human response to God’s absolute and all-encompassing sovereignty is to glorify and worship Him.
And We sent no messenger before you but that We revealed to him, ‘There is no god save Me, so worship Me’. (Qurʾan, 21:25)
But the human being has been granted the special honour among creatures of being the vicegerent, successor, or representative (khalīfa) of God on earth:
And He it is who has made you successors in the earth and has raised some of you above others in degrees, so that He may try you in what He has given you. (Qurʾan, 6:165)
Moreover, the Qur’an repeatedly states that God has placed all that is in heaven and on earth at mankind’s disposal. However, with this privilege come responsibilities. Firstly, as vicegerent, it is the unique function and duty of human beings that they should know and recognize the Creator through the signs of His creation, as well as showing gratitude for His bounty:
…He produces crops for you, and olives, date-palms, grapes and every kind of fruit; surely in this is a sign for people who give thought.
He has made subject to you the night and the day; the sun and the moon; and the stars are in subjection by His command. Surely in this are signs for people who use their intellect.
It is He who has made the sea subject, that you may eat from it fresh meat, and bring forth from it ornaments which you wear; and you see the ships cleaving through it, that you may seek of His bounty, and that you may be grateful.
(Qurʾan, 16: 11, 12 and 14)
Secondly, human beings have a duty to respect other creatures and take care of the earth:
No creature is there crawling on the earth, no bird flying with its wings, but they are nations like yourselves. (Qurʾan, 6:38)
…Do not walk in the earth exultantly; God does not love anyone who is proud and boastful. (Qurʾan, 31:18)
…Do not be wasteful, for He does not love those who are wasteful. (Qurʾan, 6:141).
Thirdly, the function of vicegerent involves the upholding of justice and virtuous conduct, as in the following words, addressed to the prophet David:
…We have indeed made you a vicegerent on the earth; so judge justly between people and do not follow desire that it then lead you astray from the way of God. (Qurʾan, 38:26)
Thus we see that human vicegerency involves a duty towards God, to the creation, and to fellow human beings. But fulfilment of this threefold responsibility depends upon the maintenance of a balance within the human being of the three Platonic capacities that were mentioned above, those of intellect, anger and desire. This principle is clearly expounded in the 13th century Qur’an commentary of Nāsir al-Dīn al-Baydāwī, entitled Anwār al-tanzīl wa-asrār al-taʾwīl (‘Lights of Revelation and Mysteries of Interpretation’), in the context of verse 30 of Sura al-Baqara:
And when your Lord said to the angels, ‘I am appointing on earth a vicegerent’. They said: ‘Will You place therein one who will make mischief there and shed blood whilst we celebrate Your praises and glorify Your holy name?’ He said: ‘I know what you know not.’ (Qur’an, 2:30).
Explaining the angels’ objection and God’s response, Baydāwī states:
Man possesses three faculties, that are each pivotal to his life situation, those of desire and anger, which can lead to corruption and the shedding of blood, and the intellectual faculty, which calls him to knowledge and obedience … the compound of these faculties yields … the ability to encompass all things and worlds, the origination of arts and sciences, and the drawing out of the positive characteristics of all existent things, from potential to actuality, which is the purpose of the appointment of the vicegerent.
When people are taken over by desire, as we saw from the words addressed to the prophet David in the verse cited above, they will be led from the way of God. In another verse, the dire consequences of being dominated by desire are described:
Have you then seen him who has taken as his god his [own] desire, and whom God has knowingly led astray? He has set a seal upon his hearing and his heart, and placed a covering over his sight. So who will guide him after God? Will you not then take heed? (Qur’an 45:23)
Just as there needs to be a hierarchy in the maintenance of order within the human being, so it is within human society. Several verses in the Qur’an enunciate the divinely-ordained hierarchy among people:
We raise in degree whomever We will: but over each one endued with knowledge is one more knowing. (Qur’an, 12:76)
…[He] has raised some of you above others in degrees, so that He may try you in what He has given you. (Qurʾan, 6:165).
But order and balance in society require the existence of a ruler. Sovereignty (mulk) is shown in the Qur’an to be ordained and bestowed by God; it was granted to the prophets David and Solomon, and to Saul despite the objections of his people:
Then their prophet said to them, ‘Verily God has raised up Saul for you as king’. They said, ‘How can he be king over us when we have better right than he to kingship, and he has not been given wealth in abundance?’ He said, ‘God has chosen him over you and has increased him greatly in wisdom and stature. God gives the kingship to whom He wills; and God is All-embracing, All-knowing’. (Qur’an, 2:247)
The principle of divine sanction is included in the term ‘Sultan’ that was later applied to rulers. The Arabic word sultān has the meaning of ‘delegated power’ and also of ‘permission’. Order in society requires not only that there be some who are granted authority over others, but the compliance of those who are under their sovereignty. Believers are exhorted to:
Obey God and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. (Qur’an, 4:59)
Nonetheless, the Western idea of the oriental despot, which surfaced during the Enlightenment and has remained in the Western imagination since, is very far from the reality of the power that Muslim rulers actually wielded, and in fact reflects the despotic power of the absolute monarchs of Europe. The sultan’s authority was circumscribed by clearly defined norms within society. Rulers, like everyone else, were subject to the sharia, which was under the authority of the scholar. Rulers had command over their courts and the appointment of judges and other key functionaries, such as market inspectors and tax collectors. However, the administration of justice was the preserve of the scholar. Amongst the ruler’s functions was the protection of his realm so that the Islamic way of life could be lived in peace, keeping open the routes for the pilgrims and traders, and supporting the scholars and craftsmen responsible for the intellectual and material domains of the world under his jurisdiction. As a patron, he would protect orphans and the poor, and endow mosques, colleges, hospitals and other charitable institutions. If he was a wise ruler he would be remembered with gratitude for generations, if bad, he would be suffered in patience, with the knowledge that he would pass away in time, and if God so willed He would provide a better ruler in his place.
The scholars’ understanding of the character and role of the ruler is clearly enunciated in Saʿd al-Dīn al-Taftāzānī’s great kalām summa, Sharh al-Maqāsid (‘The Commentary on the Objectives’):
The Muslims require a political leader who actualises practice of the religion, establishes the Sunna, gives justice to the oppressed and fulfils the rights of all. He must be of responsible age, a Muslim, morally upright, free, male, diligent, courageous, possessed of his own point of view, and able to effect that which he chooses to do.
However, the absolute power of God and the ephemeral nature of the power of earthly rulers is unequivocally stated in the Qur’an:
Say: ‘O God, Master of the Kingdom, You give sovereignty to whomever You will, and strip away sovereignty from whomever You will. You exalt whomever You will, and You abase whomever You will; in Your hand is all good. You have power over all things.’ (Qur’an, 3:26)
THE WEST
IN CHRISTIANITY, as in Islam, God’s sovereignty over His creation is absolute:
Great is our Lord and mighty in power; his understanding has no limit (Psalm 147:5)
Yours, Lord, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the majesty and the splendour, for everything in heaven and earth is yours. Yours, Lord, is the kingdom; you are exalted as head over all. Wealth and honour come from you; you are the ruler of all things. In your hands are strength and power to exalt and give strength to all (1 Chronicles, 29:11-12)
God’s sovereignty is manifested on earth through the person of Jesus Christ, who appoints St Peter and his successors as responsible for the governance of the Church.
When Jesus came to the region of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, ‘Who do people say the Son of Man is?’
They replied, ‘Some say John the Baptist; others say Elijah; and still others, Jeremiah or one of the prophets.’
‘But what about you?’ he asked. ‘Who do you say I am?’
Simon Peter answered, ‘You are the messiah, the Son of the living God.’
Jesus replied, ‘Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by flesh and blood, but by my Father in heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven’ (Matthew, 16:13-19).
The Christian Church had grown up within the Roman Empire as a separate self-contained world, sometimes tolerated and sometimes persecuted but always an alien presence, until its adoption as the Empire’s religion by Constantine in 312. But this long incubation within Rome ensured the separation between the sacred and the secular, which had been given authority in Matthew, 22:21 where Jesus says:
‘Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s; and to God the things that are God’s.
In the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic West, with the Pope as the head of the Church, the Lords Spiritual had precedence over the Lords Temporal, and the cathedral over the castle. Sacred knowledge and the administering of the sacraments were entirely the province of the Lords Spiritual. The Church had its own governance, and its officiates were subject to Canon Law. The Lords Temporal were responsible for the governance and defence of the realm, and the people were subject to Common or Roman law. This split in authority between the sacred and secular made for a fragile balance, but one that nonetheless held together for a millennium, producing a God-centred world that was deeply imbued with the Christian virtues.
There were two distinct halves to this millennium, and the year 1000 was the watershed between them. The first half came closest to realising the Christian ideal, and began with the conversion of the newly-conquering Germanic tribes. Two great saints were instrumental in this process: St Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) and St Gregory the Great (d. 604). St Gregory consolidated the power of the Papacy, sent out missionaries to all parts of the continent, including the far-away island of Britain, and was responsible for unifying Europe under the Catholic C
hurch. St Benedict is recognized as the founder of Western Christian monasticism and his Rule of St Benedict profoundly influenced all subsequent monastic orders. He is known as a patron saint of Europe.
St Benedict’s importance lies in the fact that it was monks and nuns who were primarily responsible for Europe becoming a Christian world. They vowed to live lives governed by the monastic rules of poverty, chastity and obedience, and to sincerely follow in the footsteps of Jesus Christ. The world they encountered was one of tribes and villages, and the monastery became its heart, teaching and counselling, taking care of the poor, administering to the sick and bringing the community together in worship. Christianity flourished in this environment, as witnessed by the number of saints that belong to this period. One only has to read the Ecclesiastical History of the English People composed in the 8th century by the Venerable Bede to get an idea of the light that shone through and illuminated their world.