by Rob Harper
Compagnies-Bretonnes (Breton Companies)
The strength of these companies varied over time, but they provided a reasonably disciplined body of troops under Bonchamps’ command and often fought in the front ranks. Bonchamps also led men called ‘Hommes-des-Bonchamps’ from within the Vendée. Both seem to have formed a semi-permanent army, paid in kind through the provision of food, clothing and weapons.
Charette’s Grenadiers and Stofflet’s Chasseurs-de-Roi
Towards the end of August Charette ordered each of his parishes to form their most robust men into a company of grenadiers. When necessary these could be combined into a single body of troops.8
Stofflet had an elite company called the Chasseurs-de-Roi which included German deserters; being from Alsace Stofflet could communicate with them in their own language.
In early September command of the Vendée-Militaire was placed under four main generals: Bonchamps, La Rochejaquelein, Charette and Lescure. Each was ordered to establish a permanent body of their bravest 1,200 men, to be drilled like line troops, and Charette’s grenadiers may have been his contribution.9 At best this can only have been partially achieved.
Republican Deserters
An unidentified number of national guards, volunteers and regulars joined the rebels, including some from the 4th, 31st and 84th Line.
The Bande-Noire
A band of scouts formed at Dol in November, called the ‘bande-noire’, were distinguished by a black armband on their left arm. Formed from German speaking deserters, they had a brief existence.10
Cavalry
By early June some German deserters were formed into a body of forty-five cavalry to form a cadre of four squadrons each of ten men; some were from the 8th Hussars.11
The cavalry formed slowly and comprised a minority of well-mounted men and a majority of men on farm horses, often with rope for horse gear and incapable of regular drill or deployment. They were, however, useful for gathering supplies, scouting and pursuing the enemy.
Small bodies of cavalry were attached to each division and at its peak the Grand Army mustered a few thousand, but not many could be used on the field of battle. The German deserters gained a reputation for pillaging and brutality.
According to Béjarry, Charette’s cavalry was composed of gentlemen and others who had arrived with horses but held no command in the parishes. This cavalry doubled as scouts and ADCs and could form up as a body of horse to exploit victory or cover a retreat.12
Each division’s headquarters included a small mounted escort for the most senior officers.
Artillery
In the first weeks of the war the rebels captured a range of ordnance of widely varying age and calibre. As the months passed they formed an artillery park at Mortagne-sur-Sèvre, and an arsenal in Cholet, formed from over 200 captured cannon. On campaign they rarely deployed more than forty cannon.
On the field of battle the artillery was normally split among the divisions in small units: most generally being with the centre. The vast majority of cannon served the Grand Army and many guns were harnessed to cattle.
The artillery became well organised, with caissons, supply wagons and even mobile forges. Although often poorly handled, there are instances of their use being effective. In December, D’Obenheim noted that they always had difficulty forming horse teams, lacked horseshoes, and that they did not manufacture grapeshot. They largely relied on captured munitions, although saltpetre was quarried in Chalonnes.
The Army of the Centre
There were genuine attempts to provide a more formal structure within the armies, but this was only ever partially achieved as the rebels rarely had the time they needed to develop the organisation and drill the men.
The Army of the Centre offers a good example of the level of organisation attempted by the rebels.13
Its Regulations were set out on 4 April. At its top was a Military Council, composed of two generals and four general officers. They planned to form four divisions from an undefined number of parish companies, these divisions taking the name of the main town in an area.
Each division was to form its own staff, consisting of a general, lieutenant general, major, two adjutants, standard bearer, surgeon, chaplain, secretary and treasurer. They were also ordered to organise a permanent company of fifty chasseurs. A fifth company, entitled the First Chasseurs, was to accompany the commander-in-chief and be 120 strong (plus nineteen officers and NCOs, a standard bearer and two drummers). White, yellow, green and red woollen plumes were planned for the four chasseur companies.
Each division was also instructed to organise twenty-five ‘brave and well mounted’ cavalry entitled dragoons, and a further body of sixty cavalry, with green plumes, was to be placed under a colonel to provide the guard of honour for the headquarters.
Guarding the Frontiers
Small permanent guards were established on the frontier of the Vendée Militaire, particularly along key river lines.
Prisoners
With the rapid influx of prisoners, prisons were established: notably in Montaigu, Cholet and Mortagne. Many captured republicans, however, would have their heads shaved and were then released on the promise they would not serve against the royalists for a year. If recaptured they faced execution.
La Championnière wrote that Charette rarely executed prisoners, whereas La Cathelinière took the view ‘kill or be killed’ and his prisoners were executed by a small man with a red beard who showed no emotion when carrying out this task.14
Care of the wounded
The rebels evacuated the wounded as best they could, utilising wagons and horses. They established a rudimentary system of hospitals in key towns, religious houses and deep in some forests.
Uniforms of the Vendéen Armies
The most common distinguishing mark of the Vendéen rebel was the ‘Sacre-Coeur’: a small patch of white cloth with a red heart, surmounted by a cross, sewn onto their jackets. White paper or cloth cockades were often seen attached to their hats.
At the second battle of Les Sables d’Olonne the rebels could be distinguished by ‘little rosaries and small red strands of silk and wool’.15
Except for the small number of republican deserters (who must have adapted the clothing they deserted in) and a sprinkling of ex-royal army officers who chose to wear their old uniforms, the vast majority of the troops wore civilian or peasant costume.
One of the most readily distinguishable items of peasant dress was the broad-brimmed felt hat, although bicornes and woollen hats were also in evidence. A short form of top-hat, which widened at its base, was also in evidence (note the cover image of Henri de la Rochejaquelein). The chequered red-and-white scarves manufactured in Cholet had a degree of popularity in the Grand Army and the peasants generally wore their hair long.
Other common distinctions were short waist or hip-length jackets (with or without collars); loose fitting shirts; baggy breeches or trousers; and canvas gaiters and clogs (sabots), although bare feet were equally common. Most peasants clothing was made from canvas or wool and natural dyes enabled them to produce clothing of mid-blue, grey, beige, various browns, dark green and red. The jackets were often adorned with rows of buttons, as were the sides of their breeches, and wide waistbands were common.
The Marais seem to have had some specific distinctions (highlighted in Crosefinte’s detailed work).16 These included a tight-fitting jacket, cotton belt, broad-brimmed felt hat with velvet trim, and especially loose-fitting trousers. Their jackets were generally dark brown and were too narrow to button up over the chest. Crosefinte also mentions evidence for wide red or green transverse-striped waistbands; dark blue or brown raw-wool stockings protecting their lower legs and feet; and large sabots. Wool or iron-grey coats of ample size and with large hoods were commonly seen in winter. Some of Charette’s men, known as the ‘moutons-noire’ (black sheep) wore black sheepskins in place of jackets and came from the wilder parts of the region.
Thigh length blouses,
not unlike a shepherd’s smock, were also common amongst the rebels; as indeed were captured items of republican clothing.
White, black and green plumes were noted among the cavalry, as was their habit of attaching captured tricolour-cockades and epaulettes to their horses’ tails as a mark of derision. They also had a fashion for sporting waist belts in chequered or striped coloured fabric.17
Bonchamps was said to have dressed his elite companies in red and in April Stofflet formed a small body of gamekeepers dressed in green (probably the core of his elite company) and a company of elite under Sapinaud also dressed in green.18
In July Stofflet formed a body of dragoons, and horse and foot chasseurs (500 attached to each division) dressed in green uniforms, with white facings, and given rank distinctions. The dragoons are said to have worn helmets.19
In the period from March to September there was little to formally distinguish rank, although senior officers began to adopt broad white waist sashes and varying coloured headscarves beneath their hats. White, or black and white, plumes, and white scarves or black armbands tied above the left elbow, were common, black being a symbol of mourning for the executed King.
In September Bonchamps, La Rochejaquelein, Lescure and Charette were ordered to wear green jackets with white, black or green collars and, although neither La Rochejaquelein nor Charette followed the rule, green jackets became popular for officers in general.20
At Fougères in November, distinguishing features were made for the most senior generals:
• La Rochejaquelein, white waist sash with a black knot
• Stofflet, white waist sash with a red knot
• Marigny, white waist sash with a blue knot
• Talmont, white waist sash with a blue and gold knot
The tails to each of these sashes hung loose, while other generals simply wore the white waistband without the knot or tails. Junior officers simply wore a scarf or band on their arm, and some identification within the armbands may have distinguished their role or grade.21
Joly made a point of wearing peasant costume, his one concession being a white headband around his broad brimmed hat.22
Charette wore a variety of flamboyant uniforms, including a sash with a gold fringe and a Henry IV style hat with white plumes and gold piping.23
La Rochejaquelein wore a dark-blue frock coat and was soon distinguished by his headbands and scarves, such that several officers imitated him to lessen the risk that he became too easily targeted. Commissaire Benaben proudly reported that they captured his hat in the rout at Le Mans, describing it as ‘surmounted with six white plumes’.24
Cathelineau was noted for his modest dress and is described on one occasion as wearing a large hat with a ribbon attached by a silver buckle, and a grey jacket and trousers with lead buttons.25
Flags, Guidons and Standards
Crosefinte provides numerous images and comprehensive details on the flags and standards of the royalist armies which limited space does not permit describing here.26
Flags, guidons and standards were numerous in the royalist armies and included the Army Guidon carried with the headquarters, divisional standards, personal standards of senior officers, parish company flags and banners, and cavalry guidons.
From the outbreak of the Rising there are numerous references to rebels carrying white flags and parish or religious banners. White was the obvious colour for the background to their flags, being the colour symbolising royalist France. Flags soon appeared bearing fleurs-des-lys.
There were at least twenty divisional standards, generally bearing fleurs-des-lys and the royal coat of arms on a white background. The Guidon-General of the Grand Army was white with a gold fringe, bearing the shield with the arms of France surmounted by a crown in the centre, and a crossed épée and crucifix below the shield (in gold). It had gold fleur-des-lys to each corner.
Parish flags were diverse in appearance, although many contained a religious reference or image, or references to the King and name of the parish. Many were rectangular in design and borne hanging down from a horizontal pole fixed to a pike. Some parishes adopted the same design used for divisional standards but with the parish name added.
To indicate how similar many flags became, when the Prince de Talmont was seen with his own family flag at the head of the cavalry he was ordered to remove it, La Rochejaquelein making it clear that ‘we only recognise the fleurs-des-lys’.27
Weapons
As time went by, growing numbers of troops were armed with an array of captured muskets, swords, carbines and pistols. However, being a rural based army the majority were inevitably armed with various forms of scythes, pitchforks, pikes and clubs. There are surviving examples of some of these fearsome weapons, including bayonets strapped to poles and improvised weapons not dissimilar to medieval halberds. A common weapon was an adapted scythe, where the blade was removed and then refixed to a shaft.
Tactics
A small minority of the Vendéens would have been familiar with French army regulations: most probably those of 1779, perhaps less so those of 1791. Both sides recognised the Vendée was not cavalry country, so cavalry were generally deployed in modest numbers.
From the outset the Vendéens used irregular tactics, learning from each encounter how best to tackle the republicans. The peasant-soldiers should not be thought of as entirely undisciplined, as while they may have adopted unorthodox ways of fighting, they frequently showed remarkable resilience.
The peasants of the Marais would use the banks of the water-filled ditches to remain hidden, ready to ambush republican columns. If battle turned against them they were known to use long poles, typical to the area, to leap the ditches and escape.
The rebels knew their terrain intimately and General Kléber remarked that the nature of the countryside demanded the utmost vigilance.
Once assembled, the divisions would be given their orders, which were invariably brief and to the point. On approaching the field of combat they frequently split into three main columns and a reserve, with the centre column typically grouped around a stronger artillery contingent.
If the terrain allowed, the rebels approached as close as they could undetected, aiming to infiltrate the terrain to the front and flanks of the republicans. On a given signal their marksmen and tirailleurs would open up a withering fire from the flanks, taking particular care to target officers and gunners. This sudden discharge would be followed by a headlong charge accompanied by terrifying screams, one notable cry being ‘Rambarre! Rambarre!’ a call traditionally used to round up cattle and signifying that the enemy had been outflanked.
General Turreau indicated that a republican column might find itself under sudden and fierce assault from all sides at once, adding that officers used to conventional warfare said they would prefer a year campaigning on the frontier to a month in the Vendée.28
They often deployed in a crescent, with their best tirailleurs and marksmen on the flanks. Turreau recalled that the rebels could be seen loading their muskets as they advanced, even at the run, and while they were untrained in methods of battalion firing they could maintain a firefight just as well and just as effectively as the republicans.
D’Obenheim, who marched with the rebels in November and early December, reported that their infantry could be placed in one of three classes:29
First Class (4-5,000 men): These formed the key combat force composed of experienced peasant-soldiers and some deserters, including the Swiss, French and German Companies, the Breton Companies of the Anjou Division and troops from ‘Chouan’ territory. He added that ‘you never saw better tirailleurs’.30 They were drawn from all the divisions and nearly all the principal leaders would fight with them.
Second Class (3-4,000 men): These were held in reserve ready to move quickly into battle to support the First Class by adding weight of numbers, or thrown in to threaten the enemy’s flanks. They were variously armed and of average quality.
Third Class (The bulk of army): T
hese poorly armed troops would generally only join in combat if they were sure of victory, but could be inspired in extreme situations.
The First Class troops were regarded as the ‘shield for the army and the refugees’, consequently if they were in any way shaken everyone else was prone to panic. However, as D’Obenheim noted, each battle caused them to progressively diminish in strength. He noted the army’s reluctance to fight without La Rochejaquelein leading and Stofflet at the head of the infantry with the standards.31
The leaders, invariably in the front line, would be looking for weaknesses in the enemy’s ranks to exploit any opportunity, and although victory might often depend on their first assault, if the element of surprise was lost, the rebels were known to continue a prolonged firefight from cover.
When faced by artillery the Vendéens adopted an unorthodox but successful tactic. The officers would fix their eyes on the enemy cannon and as the matches were lit would cry out ‘ventre a terre’ on which order the men would throw themselves flat on the ground, then on the call ‘portez vos armes’ they would leap up and with the shout ‘en avant’ would charge the guns. By racing forwards and throwing themselves flat between rounds they would eventually attack and overpower the gunners.
The rebels were uncomfortable when attempts were made to deploy them in regular formation although they did on occasion deploy in rudimentary closed columns.
If threatened by counter-attack the rebels could simply disappear into the countryside, covered by their cavalry, or allow the pursuit to develop and lure detached units into ambushes.
Republicans often complained that their fanaticism meant that they were not afraid to die. Berruyer reported that they seemed willing to abandon everything held dear in the world to follow ‘villainous priests who, with a crucifix in one hand and pistol in the other, give them benediction and threaten to kill them if they show weakness in battles’.32