Soul City

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Soul City Page 44

by Thomas Healy


  Sitton won the Pulitzer Prize: Richard Hart, “Sitton Wins Pulitzer for Commentary,” News & Observer (Raleigh, NC), April 19, 1983, 1.

  By the time he retired … recovery of $2.4 million: James T. Hamilton, Democracy’s Detectives: The Economics of Investigative Journalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016), 208–78.

  When I interviewed … “I didn’t care”: Pat Stith interview with the author, August 26, 2019.

  a hundred acres of former Soul City land: “1,300 Jobs, 85 Homes Forecast at Soul City by New Investors,” Durham Morning Herald, February 15, 1989; Minchin, “Brand New Shining City,”151–52.

  a prison would provide jobs: Thurletta M. Brown, “Dissatisfaction Expressed By Some Over Proposed Location of Prison,” Warren Record, January 5, 1994.

  $6.5 million in yearly revenue: Karen Brown interview with the author, October 15, 2015.

  Voyette tells me … “what everyone’s looking for”: Voyette Perkins-Brown interview with the author, August 22, 2015.

  “beautiful place to live”: Jane Ball-Groom interview with the author, August 22, 2015.

  “it was a blessing”: Jane Ball-Groom interview with the author, June 3, 2014.

  BIBLIOGRAPHY

  MANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS

  Ralph Bunche Oral History Collection, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University.

  Floyd B. McKissick Papers #4930, Southern Historical Collection of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the African American Resources Collection of North Carolina Central University.

  The Papers of the Congress of Racial Equality: Addendum, 1944–1968, Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Atlanta.

  Daniel H. Pollitt Papers #5498, Southern Historical Collection, the Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

  Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, US National Archives and Records Administration, Yorba Linda, CA.

  North Carolina Collection, the Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

  Records of the New Community Development Corporation, Record Group 207.7.8, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD.

  Stanley S. Scott Papers, Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library, Ann Arbor, MI.

  Jack Underhill Papers, Collection #C0134, Special Collections Research Center, George Mason University Libraries.

  BOOKS AND ARTICLES

  Adler, Renata. After the Tall Timber. New York: New York Review Books, 2015.

  Ambrose, Stephen E. Nixon. Vol. 2, The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989.

  Arnold, Joseph L. The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program, 1935–1954. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1971.

  Ball-Groom, E. Jane. The Salad Pickers: Journey South. Morrisville, NC: Lulu, 2012.

  Baradaran, Mehrsa. The Color of Money: Black Banks and the Racial Wealth Gap. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2017.

  Bass, Jack, and Walter DeVries. The Transformation of Southern Politics: Social Change and Political Consequence Since 1945. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995.

  Biles, Roger. “The Rise and Fall of Soul City: Planning, Politics, and Race in Recent America.” Journal of Planning History 4, no. 1 (February 2005): 52–72.

  Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.

  ________. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998.

  ________. At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1963–68. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.

  Brophy, Alfred L. Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Riot of 1921, Race, Reparations, and Reconciliation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

  Brown-Nagin, Tomiko. Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.

  Burby, Raymond J., Thomas G. Donnelly, and Shirley F. Weiss. New Communities USA. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1976.

  Burrows, Herbert Ray. Norlina: Nothing Could Be Finer. Norlina, NC: Burrows, 2005.

  Campbell, Carlos C. New Towns: Another Way to Live. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, 1976.

  Carson, Clayborne. In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.

  Chafe, William H. Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.

  Christensen, Rob. The Rise and Fall of the Branchhead Boys. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019.

  Coates, Ta-Nehisi. “The Case for Reparations.” Atlantic, June 2014.

  Cooper, Christopher A., and H. Gibbs Knotts. “Traditionalism and Progressivism in North Carolina.” In The New Politics of North Carolina, edited by Christopher A. Cooper and H. Gibbs Knotts, 1–10. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.

  Craig, Lee A. Josephus Daniels: His Life and Times. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013.

  Crockett, Norman L. The Black Towns. Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1979.

  Crow, Jeffery J., Paul D. Escott, and Flora J. Hatley Wadelington. A History of African Americans in North Carolina. Raleigh: North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources, 2002.

  Davidson, Osha Gray. The Best of Enemies: Race and Redemption in the New South. New York: Scribner, 1996.

  Davies, Tom Adam. Mainstreaming Black Power. Oakland: University of California Press, 2017.

  Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. New York: North Point Press, 2010.

  Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1907.

  Dyer, Stephanie. “Progress Plaza: Leon Sullivan, Zion Investment Associates, and Black Power in a Philadelphia Shopping Center.” In The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power, edited by Michael Ezra, 137–53. New York: Routledge, 2013.

  Ezra, Michael, ed. The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power. New York: Routledge, 2013.

  Farrington, Joshua D. “‘Build, Baby, Build’: Conservative Black Nationalists, Free Enterprise, and the Nixon Administration.” In The Right Side of the Sixties: Reexamining Conservatism’s Decade of Transformation, edited by Laura Jane Gifford and Daniel K. Williams, 61–80. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

  ________. Black Republicans and the Transformation of the GOP. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.

  Fergus, Devin.“The Ordeal of Liberalism and Black Nationalism in an American Southern State, 1965–1980.” PhD diss., Columbia University, 2002.

  ________. Liberalism, Black Power, and the Making of American Politics, 1965–1980. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009.

  Fields, Corey D. Black Elephants in the Room: The Unexpected Politics of African American Republicans. Oakland: University of California Press, 2016.

  Forsyth, Ann. Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

  Franke, Katherine. Repair: Redeeming the Promise of Abolition. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2019.

  Franklin, John Hope. The Free Negro in North Carolina, 1790–1860. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

  Franklin, John Hope, and Alfred A. Moss Jr. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans, 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2000.

  Franklin, John Hope, and Isidore Starr, eds. The Negro in Twentieth Century America: A Reader on the Struggle for Civil Rights. New York: Vintage Books, 1967.

  Frazier, Nishani. Harambee City: The Congress of Racial Equality in Cleveland and the Rise of Black Power Populism. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2017.

  Furgurson, Ernest B. Hard Right: The Rise of Jesse Helms. New York: W.W. Norton, 1986.
/>   Galantay, Ervin. “Black New Towns: The Fourth Alternative.” Progressive Architecture 49, no. 8 (August 1969): 126–31.

  Garrow, David J. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. London: Jonathan Cape, 1988.

  Gifford, Laura Jane, and Daniel K. Williams, eds. The Right Side of the Sixties: Reexamining Conservatism’s Decade of Transformation. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.

  Gillan, Zachary. “Black Is Beautiful But So Is Green: Capitalism, Black Power, and Politics in Floyd McKissick’s Soul City.” In The New Black History: Revisiting the Second Reconstruction, edited by Manning Marable and Elizabeth Kai Hinton, 267–86. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.

  Goudsouzian, Aram. Down to the Crossroads: Civil Rights, Black Power, and the Meredith March Against Fear. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2014.

  Haley, Alex. Roots: The Saga of an American Family. Boston: Da Capo Press, 2014.

  Hamilton, Kenneth Marvin. Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and Development in the Trans-Appalachian West, 1877–1915. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991.

  Hays, R. Allen. The Federal Government and Urban Housing, 3rd ed. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2012.

  Herbin-Triant, Elizabeth A. Threatening Property: Race, Class, and Campaigns to Legislate Jim Crow Neighborhoods. New York: Columbia University Press, 2019.

  Hermann, Janet Sharp. The Pursuit of a Dream. Banner Books. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.

  Hill, Lance. The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.

  Howard, Chris D. “Keep Your Eyes on the Prize: The Black Struggle for Civic Equality in Durham, North Carolina, 1954–63.” Undergraduate honors thesis, Duke University, 1983.

  Howard, Ebenezer. To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1902.

  Hurston, Zora Neale. Dust Tracks on a Road: An Autobiography. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984.

  ________. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2013.

  Jacobs, Jane. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Vintage, 1961.

  Jennings, Chris. Paradise Now: The Story of American Utopianism. New York: Random House, 2016.

  Johnson, Hannibal. Acres of Aspiration: The All-Black Towns in Oklahoma. Austin, TX: Eakin Press, 2007.

  Jones, Bignall. Boyhood Days in Warrenton. Warrenton, NC: Record Print Co., 1993.

  Jones, Rhonda. “A. Philip Randolph, Early Pioneer: The Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, National Negro Congress, and the March on Washington Movement,” in The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power, edited by Michael Ezra, 9–21. New York: Routledge, 2013.

  Joseph, Peniel E. Waiting ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America. New York: Henry Holt, 2006.

  Key, V. O. Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949.

  Killens, John Oliver. Black Man’s Burden. New York: Trident, 1965.

  Kotz, Nick. Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws That Changed America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.

  Landis, John. “Model Cities Program,” in The Encyclopedia of Housing, 2nd ed., edited by Andrew T. Carswell, 458–61. Los Angeles: Sage, 2012.

  Laurent, Sylvie. King and the Other America: The Poor People’s Campaign and the Quest for Racial Equality. Oakland: University of California Press, 2018.

  Lemann, Nicholas. The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America. New York: Vintage Books, 1992.

  Lester, Julius. Look Out, Whitey! Black Power’s Gon’ Get Your Mama! New York: Grove Press, 1969.

  Levy, Peter B. “The Dream Deferred: The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., and the Holy Week Uprisings of 1968.” In Baltimore ’68: Riots and Rebirth in an American City, ed. Jessica Elfenbein, Elizabeth Nix, and Thomas Hollowak. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011.

  ________. The Great Uprising: Race Riots in Urban America during the 1960s. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018.

  Link, William A. Righteous Warrior: Jesse Helms and the Rise of Modern Conservatism. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2008.

  Mabry, William. The Negro in North Carolina Politics Since Reconstruction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1970.

  Madigan, Tim. The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001.

  Madison, Emily Webster. “Objections Sustained: The Conception and Demise of Soul City, North Carolina.” Essay submitted for Honors in History, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, April 1995.

  Marable, Manning. Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–2006, 3rd ed. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007.

  ________. How Capitalism Underdeveloped Black America: Problems in Race, Political Economy, and Society. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2015.

  ________. W. E. B. Du Bois: Black Radical Democrat. London: Routledge, 2016.

  McKissick, Floyd B. Three-Fifths of a Man. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

  Meier, August, and Elliot Rudwick. CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942–1968. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975.

  Minchin, Timothy J. “‘A Brand New Shining City’: Floyd B. McKissick Sr. and the Struggle to Build Soul City, North Carolina.” North Carolina Historical Review 82, no. 2 (April 2005): 125–55.

  ________. From Rights to Economics: The Ongoing Struggle for Black Equality in the U.S. South. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2007.

  Mixon, Herman, Jr. Soul City: The Initial Stages, the Genesis and First Two Years of the Soul City Project, with Questions for the Future. Chapel Hill: Center for Urban and Regional Studies, University of North Carolina, 1971.

  Montgomery, Lizzie Wilson. Sketches of Old Warrenton: Traditions and Reminiscences of the Town and People Who Made It. Raleigh, NC: Edwards & Broughton Printing Co., 1924.

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  Mumford, Eric. Designing the Modern City: Urbanism Since 1850. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018.

  Mumford, Lewis. The Culture of Cities. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1938.

  National Committee on Urban Growth Policy. The New City. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969.

  Painter, Nell Irvin. Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction. New York: W.W. Norton, 1986.

  Perlstein, Rick. Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America. New York: Scribner, 2009.

  ________. The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015.

  Pritchett, Wendell E. Robert Clifton Weaver and the American City: The Life and Times of an Urban Reformer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.

  Purnell, Brian. Fighting Jim Crow in the County of Kings: The Congress of Racial Equality in Brooklyn. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2013.

  Rhee, Foon. “Visions, Illusions, and Perceptions: The Story of Soul City.” Thesis in fulfillment of Honors in History, Duke University, 1984.

  Risen, Clay. A Nation on Fire: America in the Wake of the King Assassination. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2009.

  Roberts, Gene, and Hank Klibanoff. The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation. New York: Vintage, 2007.

  Rogers, Ibram H. “Acquiring ‘A Piece of the Action’: The Rise and Fall of the Black Capitalism Movement.” In The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power, edited by Michael Ezra, 172–87. New York: Routledge, 2013.

  Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: Liveright, 2017.

  Sanders, Crystal R. “
North Carolina Justice on Display: Governor Bob Scott and the 1968 Benson Affair.” Journal of Southern History 79, no. 3 (August 2013): 659–80.

  Shapiro, Amanda. “Welcome to Soul City: Exploring the Remains of a Black Power Utopia.” Oxford American 80 (Spring 2013).

  Strain, Christopher. “Soul City, North Carolina: Black Power, Utopia, and the African American Dream.” Journal of African American History 89, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 57–74.

  Sugrue, Thomas J. Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North. New York: Random House, 2009.

  Sullivan, Leon H. Build, Brother, Build: From Poverty to Economic Power. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith, 1969.

  Thomas, Karen Kruse. Deluxe Jim Crow: Civil Rights and American Health Policy, 1935–54. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011.

  Turner, Morris. America’s Black Towns and Settlements: A Historical Reference Guide. Rohnert Park, CA: Missing Pages Production, 1998.

  Tyson, Timothy B. Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999.

  ________. Blood Done Sign My Name: A True Story. New York: Broadway Books, 2005.

  Van Deburg, William L. New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.

  Wakeman, Rosemary. Practicing Utopia: An Intellectual History of the New Town Movement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016.

  Walls, Dwayne E. The Chickenbone Special. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971.

  Washington, Booker T. Up from Slavery. New York: Doubleday, 1901.

  Weems, Robert E. Business in Black and White: American Presidents and Black Entrepreneurs in the Twentieth Century. New York: New York University Press, 2009.

  Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. New York: Vintage Books, 2011.

  Woodard, Harold. “Floyd McKissick: Portrait of a Leader.” Master’s thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1981.

  Woodson, Carter G. A Century of Negro Migration. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, 1918.

 

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