The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence
Page 45
39.Nunca Mas, pp. 386, 387.
40.Keegan, World armies.
41.Weil et al., Area handbook, pp. 320-30.
42.Nunca Mas.
43.Ibid.
44.Commission on Human Rights, Report on the situation, p. 19.
45.Gillespie, R. (1982). Soldiers of Perón: Argentina’s Montoneros. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 250.
46.Sabato, E. (1986). Prologue. In Nunca Mas, p. 4.
47.Ibid., p. 3.
48.Commission on Human Rights. Report on the situation.
Nunca Mas.
49.Nunca Mas, p. 22.
50.Ibid., p. 38.
51.Ibid., p. 42.
52.Ibid., p. 37.
53.Amnesty International Report. (1980). Testimony on secret detention camps in Argentina. London: Amnesty International Publications.
54.Ibid.
55.Nunca Mas, p. 72.
56.Ibid.
57.Commission on Human Rights, Report on the situation, especially pp. 55-57, 104-16, 199-201.
Gillespie, Soldiers of Perón, pp. 244-50.
Nunca Mas.
58.Nunca Mas, p. 21-22.
59.Ibid., p. 62.
60.Ehlstein, J. (December 1986). Reflections on political torture and murder: Visits with the Mothers of the Plaza del Mayo. Invited lecture, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
61.Nunca Mas, p. 340.
62.Dworkin, Introduction to Nunca Mas, p. xvii.
Simpson, J., & Bennett, J. (1985). The disappeared and the Mothers of the Plaza. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
63.Sartre, J. P. (1958). Preface. In H. Alleg, The Question, an account of torture during the French-Algerian war, discussed in:
Peters, E. (1984). Torture. New York: Basil Blackwell.
64.Nunca Mas, p. 95.
65.Peters, Torture.
Staub, E. (In press). The psychology of torture and torturers. In P. Suedfeld. (Ed.) Psychology and Torture. Washington, D. C: Hemisphere Publishing Co.
66.Amnesty International Report, Testimony.
67.Nunca Mas, p. 122.
68.Ibid., see e.g., pp. 122-8.
69.Ibid., p. 60.
70.Dworkin, Introduction, p. xiii.
71.Nunca Mas, p. 197.
72.Hopkins, J. W. (Ed.). (1981-82). Latin American and Caribbean contemporary record. Vol. 1, 1981-1982. New York: Holmes & Meier.
73.Ehlstein, Reflections.
74.Ibid.
75.Nunca Mas, p. 444.
76.Ibid., p. 426.
Chapter 15
1.Time magazine, December 1986, p. 34.
2.Hoffer, E. (1951). The true believer. New York: Harper, p. 59.
3.Toch, H. (1965). The social psychology of social movements. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
4.Staub, E. (1987). Commentary. In N. Eisenberg & J. Strayer (Eds.), Empathy and its development. New York: Cambridge University Press.
5.Plutchik, R. (1987). Evolutionary bases of empathy. In Eisenberg & Strayer, Empathy.
6.Egendorf, A. (1986). Healing from the war: Trauma and transformation after Vietnam. Boston: Shambhala.
7.Grover, G. (1961). Inside the John Birch Society. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett Publications, p. 143.
8.Staub, E. (1975). To rear a prosocial child: Reasoning, learning by doing and learning by teaching others. In D. DePalma and J. Folley (Eds.), Moral development: Current theory and research. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Idem. (1979). Positive social behavior and morality. Vol. 2, Socialization and development. New York: Academic Press.
Idem. (1986). A conception of the determinants and development of altruism and aggression: Motives, the self, the environment. In C. Zahn-Waxler, E. M. Cummings, & R. Iannotti, (Eds.), Altruism and aggression: Social and biological origins. New York: Cambridge University Press.
9.Staub, E., & Kellett, D. S. (1972). Increasing pain tolerance by information about aversive stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21, 198-203.
10.Staub, E., & Baer, R. S., Jr. (1974). Stimulus characteristics of a sufferer and difficulty of escape as determinants of helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 279-85.
11.Egendorf, Healing, p. 102.
12.Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
13.Bellah, P. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swindler, A., & Lipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. New York: Harper & Row.
14.Suedfeld, P. (Ed.). (In press). Psychology and Torture. Washington D. C: Hemisphere. Publishing Co.
Peters, E. (1985). Torture. New York: Basil Blackwell.
15.Staub, E. (In press). The psychology of torture and torturers. In Suedfeld, Psychology and torture.
Chapter 16
1.White, R. K. (1984). Fearful warriors: A psychological profile of U.S. – Soviet relations. New York: Free Press.
2.Deutsch, M. (1983). The prevention of World War III: A psychological perspective. Political Psychology, 4, 3-31.
3.Stoessinger, J. G. (1982). Why nations go to war. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
4.Ibid., pp. 120-1.
5.Ibid.
6.Berlin, I. (1979). Nationalism: Past neglect and present power. Partisan Review, 45, 350.
7.Davidson, S. (1985). Group formation and its significance in the Nazi concentration camps. Israeli Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 22, 41-50.
8.Staub, E. (1978). Positive social behavior and morality, vol. 1, Social and personal influences. New York: Academic Press. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist, 34, 932-69.
9.Mack, J. (1983). Nationalism and the self. Psychoanalytic Review, 2, 47-69.
10.Pinderhughes, C. A. (1979). Differential bonding: Toward a psychophysiological theory of stereotyping. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 33-37.
Idem. (1981). Paired biological, psychological and social bonding. Paper presented at the 134th Annual Meetings of the American Psychiatric Association, May 9-12.
11.Barnet, R. J. (Winter, 1985). The ideology of the national security state. Massachusetts Review.
12.Ibid., p. 490.
13.Mack, Nationalism, p. 57.
14.James, W. [1910] (1970). The moral equivalent of war. In R. A. Wasserstrom (Ed.), War and morality. Reprint. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.
15.Dyson, F. (1984). Weapons and hope. New York: Colophon Books/Harper & Row, p. 19.
16.Morgenthau, H. J., & Thompson, K. (1984). Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
17.Walzer, M. (1977). Just and unjust war: A moral argument with historical illustrations. New York: Basic Books.
18.Lebow, R. N. (1986). Deterrence reconsidered: The challenge of recent research. In R. K. White (Ed.), Psychology and the prevention of nuclear war: A book of readings. New York: New York University Press.
19.Janis, I. (1983). Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
20.Morgenthau & Thompson. Politics among nations.
21.Hoffman, S. (1985). Realism and its discontents. New Republic, November, p. 134.
22.Stover, E., & Nightingale, E. O. (1985). The breaking of bodies and minds: Torture, psychiatric abuse and the health professions. New York: W. H. Freeman.
23.Bloch, S., & Reddeway, P. (1984). Soviet psychiatric abuse: The shadow over world psychiatry. London: Victor Gollancz.
24.Sorokin, P. A. (1971). The powers of creative, unselfish love. In A. H. Maslow (Ed.). New knowledge in human values. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co.
Staub, Positive social behavior, vol. 1.
25.Schopler, J. (1970). An attribution analysis of some determinants of reciprocating a benefit. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press.
Staub, Positive social behavior, vol. 1.
26.Mallick, S. K., & McCandless, B. R. (1966). A study of catharsis of aggression. Journal of Personali
ty and Social Psychology, 4, 591-6.
Pastore, N. (1952). The role of arbitrariness in the frustration-aggression hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 728-31.
Staub, E. (1971). The learning and unlearning of aggression: The role of anxiety, empathy, efficacy and prosocial values. In J. Singer (Ed.), The control of aggression and violence: Cognitive and physiological factors. New York: Academic Press.
Chapter 17
1.Tomkins, S. S. (1965). The constructive role of violence and suffering for the individual and for his society. In S. S. Tompkins & C. E. Izard (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and personality. New York: Springer.
Dyson, F. (1984). Weapons and hope. New York: Colophon Books/Harper & Row.
2.Moscovici, S. (1973). Social influence and social change. London: Academic Press.
Moscovici, S. (1980). Toward a theory of conversion behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Current issues in social psychology. New York: Academic Press.
3.Schmookler, A. B. (1984). The parable of the tribes: The problem of power in social evolution. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 23, 20. 286.
4.Niebuhr, R. [1932] (1960). Moral man and immoral society: A study in ethics and politics. Reprint. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. ix.
5.Ibid., pp. xxii-xxiii.
6.Ibid, pp. 91, 88.
7.Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality. 2d ed. New York: Harper & Row.
8.Lefcourt, H. M. (1973). The functions of the illusion of control and freedom. American Psychologist, 28, 417-26.
9.Bellah, P. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swindler, A., & Lipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. New York: Harper & Row.
10.Maslow, A. (1962). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton: Van Nostrand.
11.Maslow, A. H. (1965). Some basic propositions of a growth and self-actualization psychology. In G. Lindzey & C. S. Hall (Eds.), Theories of personality: Primary sources and research. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
12.Harmon, J. D. (Ed.). (1982). Volunteerism in the eighties. Washington, D. C: University Press of America.
13.Packard, V. (1972). A nation of strangers. New York: David McKay, pp. 6-7.
14.Etzioni, A. (1983). An immodest agenda: Rebuilding America before the twenty-first century. New York: McGraw-Hill.
15.Kinkead, E. (1959). In every war but one. New York: Norton, pp. 165, 168.
16.Garbarino, J., & Bronfenbrenner, U. (1976). The socialization of moral judgment and behavior in cross-cultural perspective. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
17.Janis, I. (1983). Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
18.Lear, N. (1985). Goldwater is true protector of our rights. San Diego Tribune, October 29.
19.Gans, H. (1980). Deciding what’s news. New York: Vintage, p. 194.
20.Aronson, J. (1970). The press and the cold war. Boston: Beacon, p. 201.
21.Ellul, J. (1973). Propaganda: The formation of men’s attitudes. New York: Vintage.
22.Rosten, L. (1937). The Washington correspondents. New York: Harcourt & Brace.
23.Mackenzie, A. (1981). Sabotaging the dissident press. Columbia Journalism Review, March/April, pp. 57-63.
Chapter 18
1.Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict: Constructive and destructive processes. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2.Sherif, M., Harvey, D. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. K., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers’ Cave experiment. Norman: University of Oklahoma Books Exchange.
Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 349-58.
3.Worchel, S. (1979). Cooperation and the reduction of intergroup conflict: Some determining factors. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks-Cole.
4.Stroebe, W., Lenkert, A., and Jonas, K. Familiarity may breed contempt: The impact of student exchange on national stereotypes and attitudes. In W. Stroebe, A. W. Kruglanski, D. Bar-Tal, & M. Hewstone (1988). The social psychology of intergroup conflict: Theory, research, and applications. New York: Springer-Verlag.
5.Cook S. W. (1970). Motives in conceptual analysis of attitude-related behavior. In W. J. Arnold and D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
6.Ben-Ari, R., & Amir, Y. (1988). Intergroup contact, cultural information and change in ethnic attitudes. In Stroebe et al., Social psychology of intergroup conflict.
7.Crosby, T. L. (1986). The impact of civilian evacuation in the Second World War. London: Croom Helm.
8.Boyer, E. (1983). High school: A report on secondary education in America. New York: Harper & Row, p. 213.
9.Harmon, J. D. (Ed.). (1982). Volunteerism in the eighties. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America.
10.Titmus, R. (1971). The gift relationship: From human blood to social policy. New York: Pantheon Books.
11.Heber, R. F., & Heber, M. E. (1957). The effect of group failure and success on social status. Journal of Educational Psychology, 48, 129-34.
Staub, E. (1979). Positive social behavior and morality. Vol. 2, Socialization and development. New York: Academic Press.
12.Gross, A. E., Wallston, B. S., & Piliavin, I. M. (1980). The help recipient’s perspective. In D. H. Smith & J. Macauley (Eds.), Participation in social and political activities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
13.Moynihan, D. P. (1986). Family and nation. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
14.Bronfenbrenner, U. (1960). The mirror image in Soviet-American relations: A social psychologist’s report. Journal of Social Issues, 16, 45-56.
15.For a review of research and for a theory of the origins of caring and of prosocial orientation, see:
Staub, Positive social behavior and morality, vol. 2.
Idem. (1981). Promoting positive behavior in schools, in other educational settings, and in the home. In J. P. Rushton, & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Idem. (1986). A conception of the determinants and development of altruism and aggression: Motives, the self, the environment. In C. Zahn-Waxler, E. M. Cummings, & R. Iannotti (Eds.), Altruism and aggression: Social and biological origins. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Staub, E. (Forthcoming). Social behavior and moral conduct: A personal goal theory account of altruism and aggression. Century Series. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Grusec, J. (1981). Socialization processes and the development of altruism. In J. P. Rushton & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Radke-Yarrow, M. R., Zahn-Waxler, C, & Chapman, M. (1983). Children’s prosocial dispositions and behavior. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual of child psychology, vol. 4. 4th ed. New York: Wiley.
Zahn-Waxler et al., Altruism and aggression.
Eisenberg, N. (1986). Altruistic emotion, cognition and behavior. Hillsdale, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hoffman, M. L. (1976). Empathy, role-taking, guilt, and development of altruistic motives. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research and social issues. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
16.Staub, Positive social behavior, vol 2. Staub, A conception.
17.Straus, M. A., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (1980). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. New York: Anchor Books.
18.Meyerholt, M. K., & White, B. L. (1986). Making the grade as parents. Psychology Today, 20, 38-45.
19.Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., & Sharan, S. (1984). Enhancing prosocial behavior through cooperative learning in the classroom. In E. Staub, D. Bar-Tal, J. Karylowski, & J. Reykowski (Eds.), Development and maintenance of prosocial behavior. New York: Plenum.
Johnson, D. W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, D., & Skon, L. (1981). The effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures in achievement: A meta analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 89, 47-62.
Sharan, S., Hare, P., Webb, C, & Hertz-Lazarowitz, R. (Eds.). (1980). Cooperation in education. Provo: Brigham Young University Press.
20.Staub, A conception.
Idem. Social behavior and moral conduct.
21.Alpokrinsky, A. (1986). Paper presented at the conference on the “Social causes and effects of the nuclear arms race,” Budapest, June.
Index
Abel, Theodore, on anti-Semitism, 104, 114, 131-2n
abolition of slavery, group action in, 261
Ache Indians (Paraguay), killing of, 85
Adana, Turkey, killings in, 177
adaptability of society to change, 14-15
Adorno, Theodor, on authoritarian personality, 73n
agentic mode, authoritarian influences on, 43
aggression (see also violence): anonymity and, 50, 77; as cultural ideal, 54; displacement of, 63-4; economic conditions and, 44; frustration-aggression hypothesis and, 38-9; genetic predisposition for, 24, 35, 52-3; in headhunter tribes, 52; historical availability of, 54; instrumental, 43; moral orientation and, 56-7; motivations for, 38-44, 63-4; and nonaggression, 274-83; origin/instigation of, 35-6, 75-6; in perpetrators, 71; persistent, 52-4; personality characteristics in, 75-6; power desires and, 40-1; situational factors in, 75-6; societal potential for, 20; sociobiology and, 52-3; in United States, 242
agriculture in Cambodia, 199
Alfonsin, President, 227n
Alianza Anticommunista Argentina, 218
Allport, Gordon, on creation of common enemy, 95
altruism (see also continuum of benevolence; helpfulness; heroic bystanders): genetic predisposition for, 24, 53; and the “good fanatic,” 77, 169, 229; in group, 28; group subversion of, 263; societal institutions promoting, 66; of Wallenberg, 168-9
American Jewish organizations in the Holocaust, 156
Amherst, Massachusetts, playground group work at, 275
Amnesty International: on Argentine prisoner treatment, 222-3; prisoners freed by, 87; on superiors assuming responsibility, 226