The roots of evil: The origins of genocide and other group violence

by Ervin Staub

  Evian Conference (1938), 155

  evil: banality of, 126; concept of, 25-7; in group dynamics, 27-8; inconsistant attitudes in, 27; perpetrators of, see perpetrators; potential for, in group violence, 26; vs. self-defense, 26; sources of, 26-7; terrorism as, 26

  evolution (see also continuum entries; learning by participation); of caring, 274-83; of fanaticism, 77; of nonaggression, 274-83

  expansionism vs. minimalism, 258-9

  extermination camps, see concentration camps

  Falkland Islands war, 231, 256

  family: authoritarianism in, 72-5, 109-11, 132; divisions in, in continuum of destruction, 125; enablement of, 268; German, relationships in, 109-11; in motivation transmission, 64; of perpetrators, 30-1, 72-5; positive socialization in, 280; punishment of children in, 72, 74

  fanaticism, 235; genocide resulting from, 76; for good purposes, 77, 169, 229; of Hitler, 31, 76, 98; irrational behavior in, 76; of Khmer Rouge, 201-4; origins of, 76-7; perpetrators and, 76-7; vs. self-preservation, 28

  fascism (see also military and military groups [Argentina]; Nazis and Nazism), mass psychology of, 114

  fear in bystanders, 239

  Fein, Helen: on Jewish segregation, 160; on prewar anti-Semitism, 153; on resistance to Nazis, 87; on resistance to oppression, 158

  Final Solution (see also Holocaust): creation of, 9; as euphemism, 29

  followership, 23-4, 236; in Cambodia, 204-6; Hitler’s appeal and, 31; and leadership, 23-4; role in genocide of, 23, 236

  foreign policy, minimalism in, 258-9

  France: anti-Semitism in, 20; Cambodia under, 197, 199; resistance in, 165-6; revolution of, scapegoating after, 50; Ruhr occupation by, 92

  freedom, information flow and, 271-3

  Freikorps, 115

  Freud, Sigmund: on aggression, 53; on anatomy as destiny, 278; on defense mechanisms, 162-3; on mysteries of unfamiliar, 103; on roots of evil, 26

  Fromm, Erich: on group identity, 42; on Hitler’s appeal, 109; on submission to authority, 29-30; on “sleeper” concept, 133

  frustration: aggression and, 35-6, 41-2, 55; anger displacement in, 63-4; in benevolent society, 265; as positive challenge, 265

  frustration-aggression hypothesis, 38-9

  fundamentalism (Christian), humanism attacked by, 61-2

  fundamentalism (Islamic) in Iran, 14

  gas chambers, 9, 136-7, 141-2; and bombing proposal, 156-7

  genetic views in German extermination program, 9, 121

  genetic predisposition: to aggression, 24, 35, 52-3; to altruism, 24; to ingroup-outgroup differentiation, 59

  genocide: in Argentina, see Argentine disappearances/mass killings; in Armenia, see Turkish genocide of Armenians; in Biafra, 86; in Burundi, 86; in Cambodia, see Cambodian autogenocide; definition of, 7-8; differences in, 6-7; in Germany, see Holocaust; government role in, 24-5; as insanity, 91; justification of, 11-12; opposition to, see opposition to genocide; perpetrators of, see perpetrators; of political groups, 8; prediction of, 241-4; self-destructive nature of, 12; vs. war, 4

  Genocide Convention, 7-8

  genocide origins: anti-Semitism and, see anti-Semitism; authoritarianism and, 29-30; bystander role in, see bystanders; central factors in, 240-1; compartmentalization of functions and, 28-9; coping mechanisms and, 16-17; cultural characteristics and, see cultural characteristics; destruction continuum and, see continuum of destruction; difficult life conditions in, see difficult life conditions; economic conditions and, 32; euphemistic language and, 28-9; evil and, 25-8; family role in, 30-1; followership and, 23-4, 236; governmental discontinuity in, 32-3; group psychology in, 237-8; Hitler’s psychopathology and, 31; individual’s role in, 24-5; leadership and, see leadership; motivation in, 22-3; obedience and, 29-30; perceived threats to nation and, 23; perpetrator psychology in, 237-8; personal goal theory of, 22-3, 28-33; psychological needs and, 15-17; social goal theory and, 28-33; societal characteristics and, 18-20; state role in, 33; victim role in, 31-2; World War I effects and, 30

  Germany (see also Holocaust): academic community of, 106-7; anarchy in, 93; anti-Semitism in, 20, 30, 100-4, 117-21, 163; authoritarianism in, 108-11; bureaucratic traditions of, 28-9; as bystander in Armenian genocide, 185-7; bystanders in, 151-2, 165-6; child-rearing practices in, 74, 109-11; communist movement in, 93-4; cultural characteristics of, 100-15, 233; democracy absence in, 109; depression effects on, 92; deprivation feelings in, 55; economic conditions in, 92; education valued in, 129-30; euthanasia program in, 66, 70, 121-3, 125, 137; “genetically inferior” persons in, extermination of, 9; genocide in, see Holocaust; government upheaval in, 32; inflation in, 92; influence of, on Argentine military, 214, 219-20; institutions of, societal climate created by, 66; intellectual community of, 106-7; Jewish persecutions in (Middle Ages), 117; Jewishpersecutions in (pre-World War II), 82-3, 117-21; loss of war by, intensified killingduring, 85, 149-50; moral dichotomy in, 113; Napoleon’s conquest of, 106; political history of, 106; population losses in (1618-48), 106; propaganda ministry of, 66; rationality in, 113; revolution in (1918), 92; romanticism in, 105-6, 113; socialists in, 114; superiority feelings in, 105-8; territories occupied by, 152-5; Treaty of Versailles effects on, 91-3; violent ideology in, 17; World War I effects on, 44, 47-8, 91-3, 113-15; Young Turks alliance with, 174; youth of, World War I effects on, 30, 113-15

  Gestapo, 135

  Gilligan, Carol, on moral orientation, male vs. female, 57

  Girard, P., on early Christian dogma, 101

  goals (see also motives; personal goal theory): cultural, 56; group, 238; hierarchy of, 144-5; internal, 56; international, 56; long-term vs. short-term, 261; modification of, in frustration, 265; national, 251-2, 258; progression toward, 85, 149-50; shared, 274-5; short-term vs. long-term, 261; superordinate, 274-6, 279

  Goebbels, Joseph: on master race, 97; on Tightness of Nazi policy, 158

  Goeth, Amos (Plaszow commandant), 138-9

  Gorbachev, Mikhail, Soviet-U.S. relations and, 257

  government: cultural characteristics of, 65; genocide organization by, 24-5; upheaval of, as genocide predisposing factor, 32-3

  Great Britain: as bystander in the Holocaust, 156; as bystander in Turkish genocide, 184-5; Palestine blockade by, 156; Turkish alliance of, 174

  Greece, torturers in, 70, 82

  group(s): adversity faced by, 267; altruism subverted by, 263; belonging to, 253; commitment to, 124; connection values in, 265; connections between, 278-9; critical loyalty to, 266; deindividualization in, 50; difficult life conditions and, 15-16, 41-2, 266-7; emotional expression in, 77-8; empathic joining in, 238; enablement promoted by, 267-8; evil potential of, 27-8; frustration in, 265; goals in, 238; human nature effects on, 262-3; human needs and, 264-5; human potential fulfillment in, 265; identification rituals in, 60, 82; individual identity diminished in, 77-8; individual relations with, 266; vs. individualism, 268-70; interaction among, 274-6; leadership of, see leadership; membership in, as coping mechanism, 49-50; minimum mass in, 278; moral orientation in, 28, 56-8; morality of, vs. individual morality, 262-3; patriotism and, 263; perpetrator psychology and, 77-8; psychology of, 16-17, 237-8; rescuers affected by, 167; satisfaction in, 78; security needs of, 265; selection for power in, 262; self-actualization and, 268-9; self-concept of, 253-4; self given up to, 17; self-interest of, 262-3; self-sacrifice in, 28; social change produced by, 261-2; social justice and, 266-8; SS identity molded by, 130; support within, 269-70; thinking patterns in, 67, 78, 124, 257; threats against, 264; trust in, 265; violent potential of, 18-19, 26

  “groupthink,” 67, 77-8, 124, 257

  Grueber, Pastor Heinrich, as rescuer of Jews, 125

  guards, behavior and attitudes of, 40, 68-9, 76

  Guatemala, social change opposition in, 86

  Gulf of Tonkin incident, 65, 256

  Gypsies in Nazi genocide, 9, 95

  Hamid, Sultan Abdul, and Turkish genocide, 173, 174, 177, 185

  hard times, see difficult life conditions

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nbsp; Hartt, B., on national upheaval, 32

  Head Start program, 268

  hedonic balancing: in difficult times, 38; by perpetrators, 70

  Heidegger, Martin, as Nazi supporter, 107

  Heider, Fritz, cognitive consistency theory of, 151

  “Heil Hitler” greeting, pschological effects of, 17, 82

  helpfulness (see also altruism; caring; continuum of benevolence): bystander influence in, 86-8, 152; divisive forms of, 278; factors affecting, 41-2; and learning by doing, 80-1; vs. number of persons present, 84; responsibility in, 87

  helplessness of Jews, 164-5

  Herder, Johann Gottfried, on German cultural specialness, 105

  heroic bystanders as rescuers of Jews, 119, 140, 154-5, 165-9

  heroic nihilism in Germany, 115

  Hess, Rudolph, 94

  Hilberg, Raul: on bureaucratization of functions, 28-9; on euphemistic language in Holocaust, 29

  Himmler, Heinrich, 128-9, 131; on master race, 97; moral conflict in, 147; responsibility assumed by, 84; on SS goals, 150

  Hindu-Muslim conflicts, 250

  Hitler, Adolph: accomplishments of, 116-17; on Armenian genocide, 187; bodyguard for (SS), 128; chancellor appointment of, 94; confirmation of faith in plans of, 87; difficult life conditions exploited by, 267; on dismissal of Jewish scientists, 97; early public speeches of, 96; on exterminating Munich Jews, 97; fanaticism of, 76, 98; genocidal ideas of, before gaining power, 67; ideology of, 94-8; influences on his anti-Semitism, 98; leadership effectiveness of, 23-4, 30, 98-9, 109; on living space (Lebensraum) rights, 55; Mein Kampf, 64, 94, 97; mother of, 31, 98; national interest defined by, 257; Nietzsche’s influence on, 111 –13; personality of, 31; Polish attack faked by, 65; positive feelings toward, 151; promises of (1920s), 93; propaganda of, 88; psychopathology of, 31, 98; religious groups supporting, 46; rise to power, 44, 91-9; Russian front defeat of, 49; social classes supporting, 46; Soviet Union alliance of, 96; SS oath of loyalty to, 129; in Vienna, 98

  Hobbes, Thomas, on human nature, 26, 28

  Hoche, Alfred, on euthanasia, 122

  Hoess, Rudolf (Auschwitz commandant), 132, 142

  Hoffer, Eric, on mass movements, 237

  Hoffman, Martin, on parental punishment, 72

  Hoffman, Stanley, on national interest and power, 258

  Holocaust: academic community’s nationalism and, 106-7; anti-Semitism in, 30, see also anti-Semitism; in Austria, 161, 164n; authoritarianism and, 29-30, 108-11; in Belgium, 154-5, 161; bribery in, 131; British passivity in, 156-7; in Bulgaria, 154-5; bystanders’ role in, 151-8, 165-6; Canadian passivity in, 156; casualties in, 7, 9, 152-5; church leaders’ behavior in, 152—5; collective retribution policy in, 164; compartmentalization in, 28-9, 83-5, 108; concentrations camps in, see concentration camps; continuum of destruction in, 116-27; coping mechanisms of victims in, 158-65; cultural preconditions in, 100-16, 233; cultural superiority feelings and, 105-7; in Denmark, 154; devaluation of Jews and, 100-4; difficult life conditions preceding, 91-4; doctor’s role in, see doctors in Holocaust; economic conditions and, 32, 91-3; in Estonia, 161; euphemistic language in, 29, 156; euthanasia in, 66, 121-3; family (perpetrator) role in, 30-1; Final Solution creation in, 9; in France, 165-6; German population as bystanders in, 151; group membership and, 124; Hitler psychohistory and, 31; in Hungary, 153-4; ideas for, before Hitler’s rise to power, 67; ideology as motive for, 95-8; and immigration of Jews, 155-6; indivdual responsibility in, 148-9; intellectual community’s nationalism and, 106-7; intensified extermination near end of war, 85, 149-50; international passivity in, 155-8; Jewish cooperation in, 158-60; Jewish councils in, 155, 159-60; killing methods in, 9, 136-7, 141-2; Kristallnacht, 117; leadership in, 23-4; Lebensraum aspect of, 55, 95; media selective reporting in U.S. of, 271; mistreatment of Jews before, 117-21; moral equilibration in, 147-9; motivation for, 23; national goals and, 104-8; in Netherlands, 161; Nietzsche’s ideas and, 111-13; Nuremberg laws and, 118, 163; origins of, 28-32, 232-6; vs. other genocides, 6-7; overview of, 9-10; paramilitary organizations and, 114-15; passivity of outside world in, 155 – 8; perpetrators in, 78, 91, see also doctors in Holocaust; SS; phases of, 9; in Poland, 154, 162; political conditions and, 32, 91-3; preconditions for, 91-5, 100-15; propaganda and, 82-3, 87, 103-4, 118, 120, 157; property confiscation in, 131; Prussian militaristic influences on, 106, 108-9; racial purity and, 95-8, 121-3, 129; rationality vs. romanticism and, 113; reality denial in, 29, 88, 162-3; rescuers of Jews in, 4, 71, 77, 80-1; resistance activity in, 4, 71, 77, 80-1, 87-8, 125, 140, 152-5, 158, 161-2; responsibility in, 148-9; self-concept and, 104-8; self-esteem and, 104-8; societal tilt in, 118-19; SS role in, see SS; totalitarianism and, 125-7; Treaty of Versailles role in, 91-4; vs. Turkish genocide, 176-7; United States passivity in, 156; victim role in, 31-2; War Refugee Board and, 156, 168; Warsaw ghetto and, 139, 162; World War I relationship to, 30, 47, 113-14; youth groups and, 114-15

  hospitals, killing in, in Holocaust, 9

  hostility: in authoritarian family, 110-11; escalation of, 250; leadership influence on, 257; motivating aggression, 39; perception of, 264; social change produced by, 64; targets for, 16, see also scapegoating; unconscious, 25

  Hou Youn, 189, 203-4, 207

  Huguenots, heroic rescue by, 165-6

  human nature, assumptions about, 26-8; group behavior and, 262-3

  human sacrifice, power of, 149

  humanism, secular, attack on, 61-2

  Hungary: anti-Semitism in, 153; Jews from, killing of, 143, 149, 150, 153-4; Wallenberg’s rescue work in, 81, 140, 166-7, 168-9

  Hutterites on equality, 56

  “I-we” concept in group, 238

  ideals in social change, 261, 282

  ideology (see also Nazi ideology), 234-5; of antagonism, 250-1; of Argentine military, 214-17; better-world, 251; in Cambodian autogenocide, 193-5; as coping mechanism, 50; definition of, 50; fanatic, see fanaticism; as Holocaust motive, 94-8; as hope in difficult times, 41; of Khmer Rouge, 192, 194-5, 201-4; of national security, 254-5; Pan-Turkism, 174; shaping in difficult times, 17; in victim selection, 86; of Young Turks, 181-2

  Ieng Sary, 207-8

  image of enemy concept, 254n

  immigration: of Jews, 155-6, 159, 161; of Muslims into Turkey, 174

  incest, 245

  India-Pakistan wars, 49, 250

  Indians, American, killing of, 85

  individualism: advantages and disadvantages of, 268-70; vs. connection to group, 266, 268-70: economic, 268; expressive, 268; genocide potential and, 241

  industrialization, Holocaust origin and, 32

  infant-caretaker relationships: in Germany, 111; and good and evil, 26-7; ingroup-outgroup differentiation and, 59

  inflation, severe: in Argentina, 210-11; in Germany, 92

  ingroup, anti-Semitism as cement for, 95

  ingroup-outgroup differentiation (see also “us-them” differentiation), 58-62

  injustice, aggression and, 40, 266-7

  Inquisition, scapegoating in, 50

  insanity, genocide as, 91

  institutions: importance of, 267; international, 279; social, 65-6; societal climate created by, 66

  international institutions as connection mechanisms, 279

  Iran, Islamic fundamentalism in, 14

  Islam (see also Muslims): in Iran, 14, 76; in Turkey, 181-2

  Italy: Jews of, 154; Nazi resistance in, 87

  Ith Sarin on Khmer Rouge leadership, 205

  James, William, on glorification of war, 255

  Janis, Irving, on groupthink, 67

  Japan, suicide rate in, vs. economic conditions, 44

  Jewish councils, 31, 159-60

  Jews (see also anti-Semitism; Holocaust): assimilation of, in Germany, 102, 117; attempted conversion of, 101; of Austria, 161, 164n; of Belgium, 155, 161; blood transfusions from, 76; Bolshevik conspiracy accusation of, 104; of Bulgaria, 154-5; business takeover from, 118; bystander actions against, 82; cooperation of, 158-60; definition of, in Germany
, 118; of Denmark, 87; 152,154; devaluation of, 100-4; emigration of, 155-6, 159, 161; of Estonia, 161; friends of (Judenfreunde), 118; helplessness of, 164-5; of Hungary, 143, 149, 150, 153-4; as inferior race, 106; of Italy, 154; of Munich, Hitler’s intentions for, 97-8; of Netherlands, 161; occupational restrictions on, 101, 118, 120; passivity of, 160-5; persecution of, see anti-Semitism; plague blamed on, 102; of Poland, 154, 162; propaganda about, 102-3; property confiscation of, 118-19; rescuers of, 119, 140, 154-5, 165-9; as scapegoats, 49, 62, 92; in scientific community, dismissal of, 97; similarities of, to Armenians, 176-7; in Sonderkommando, 136; stereotypes attributed to, 102; of Stetten, 160-1; survival mechanisms of, 158-62; torture of, in Argentina, 222-3

  John Birch Society, on South Africa, 238

  Johnson, Lyndon, Gulf of Tonkin incident and, 256

  Jost, Adolph, on state’s right to kill, 122

  Judenfreunde, 118

  Judenrat (Jewish councils), 31, 159-60

  judiciary in Argentine killings, 227-8

  just-war theory, 255-6

  just-world thinking, 266; in Armenian genocide, 186; in Jews of Stetten, 161; psychological effect of, 17-18, 79-80

  justice, social, see social justice

  kaiser, abdication of, 93

  Karski, Jan, on violence in Warsaw ghetto, 139

  Keneally, Thomas, on Plaszow concentration camps, 138, 140, 141

  Kennedy, President John F.: on Bay of Pigs decisions, 270; Peace Corps program of, 282

  Khieu Samphan, 189, 204, 206-7

  Khmer Rouge: aims of, 194-5; corruption 76, 201-4; guerrilla warfare of, 190-1, 201; ideology of, 17, 192, 194-5, 201-4; international enemies of, 202; killing by, 10-11, 192-3; “new people” created by, 4, 192-3, 195, 196-7; Phnom Penh occupation and evacuation by, 191-2; policies of, 197; rule of, 191-3; self-concept of, 199-200; victim selection by, 61; Vietnam hatred by, 198-9, 201-2; world view of, 194-5

  kidnapping in Argentine mass killings, 11, 220-5

  Kiernan, Ben, on Sihanouk government actions, 201

  killing as healing, 121-2

  killing methods: in Argentina, 220-5; in Turkish genocide, 184; in Cambodian autogenocide, 11, 192-3, 194; in Holocaust, 9, 136-7, 141-2