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Part Two
Areas of culture
Language and Literature
Chapter 15
The Language
Maria Giulia Amadasi Guzzo
General Classification and History
Names and Chronology of the Language
Phoenician, a word derived from Greek, is the label given to the language used by the inhabitants of coastal Syria (now southern Syria and Lebanon) beginning ca. 1200–1100 bce, and from ca. 800 to 750 bce in their Mediterranean settlements (“colonies”) (Cyprus, Malta, Sicily [with Pantelleria], North Africa, Sardinia, Iberian Peninsula [with the Balearic Islands]). In the western colonies, from a certain phase on, the language has been called “Punic,” from the Latin name poeni (“Phoenicians”); Phoenician inscriptions are also attested in Egypt and Greece. Accordingly, we call Phoenicians the ancient inhabitants of Lebanon, parts of Syria, Anatolia, northern Israel, and other Mediterranean regions where they spread for mercantile reasons or as mercenaries. The Phoenicians, however, did not identify themselves by a single name; instead, they used to call themselves with the ethnic term of their city of origin—Byblians, Tyrians, Sidonians, and so on—and they were politically organized into city-states already in the Bronze Age. If a unifying name existed, it could have been “Canaanites” (however, the land called “Canaan” in ancient texts was larger than the coastal strip we call “Phoenicia”). Although politically divided, in any case Phoenicians used a common language and a common writing system, what is called a consonantal alphabet; furthermore, they had common traditions and underwent similar historical developments that justify their study under one name (grammars and dictionaries include Amadasi 1997; Amadasi and Rendsburg 2013; Cunchillos and Zamora 1997; Fuentes Estañol 1980; Friedrich-Röllig-Amadasi 1999; Hackett 2004; Harris 1936; Hoftijzer and Jongeling 1995; Krahmalkov 2000, 2001; Segert 1976; Tomback 1978; van den Branden 1969).
The Phoenician language is attested, according to the alphabetic system, in the East, since about 1000 bce or slightly earlier (Aḥīrōm inscription, KAI 1) until about the first century bce. The last dated inscription comes from Arwad and dates to 24 bce. In the West, we have evidence of the language starting in the ninth–early eighth centuries bce (e.g., Nora stele, KAI 46) until about the fifth century ce, when it was written in Latin letters, or the “Latino-Punic” inscriptions; these texts were once called “Latino-Libyan” because they were thought to express a local, Libyan language. Augustine knew Punic and quotes some Phoenician words and expressions, such as salus, “three,” or Phoenician šalūš.
In the West, from about the third quarter of the sixth century bce (when Carthage became the capital of a western “empire”), the language, showing some phonological and morphological peculiarities and a typical script, is called “Punic” (from the Latin poeni); after the destruction of Carthage (Third Punic War, 146 bce), the phase of the language is called “Late Punic” or “neo-Punic” (neo-Punic is a name more properly used for the schematized script of the late period).
Classification of the Language and Documents
Phoenician belongs to the group of the Northwest Semitic languages called Canaanite (characterized by initial W > Y, except for the conjunction “and,” W-; and by the “Canaanite shift” ā > ō). This group also includes Hebrew, Ammonite, Moabite, Edomite, and the language attested by the documents of the Philistine cities. Ancient Hebrew, having literary texts and having received vocalic marks by a later grammatical tradition, has been basic to understanding and reconstructing the Phoenician language, whose writing is generally only consonantal. Canaanite dialects are distinct from Aramaic (definite article, H- and -’, respectively; specific words, such as BN in Canaanite and BR in Aramaic), both belonging to a continuum of Northwest Semitic dialects, where Phoenician stands at one extreme and Aramaic at the other (Garr 1985: 205–35).
Direct sources to reconstruct the Phoenician language are only epigr
aphic (Gesenius 1837; CIS 1881–1962; Lidzbarski 1898, 1902–1915; Cooke 1903; Chabot and Clermont-Ganneau 1905; Donner and Röllig 1962–2002 [= KAI]; Gibson 1982; Tropper 1993; Jongeling 2008; Zamora 2010a, 2010b). The number of these documents is about 10,000, and around 6,000 of them come from Carthage (founded according to tradition in 814 bce); they are mainly short dedications and funeral texts, using standard formularies. The longest texts, with narrative content, have been found in southern Anatolia (e.g., Zincirli, Çineköy, Hassan-Beyli, Karatepe, Incirli, and Ivriz, from the late ninth–late eighth centuries bce, and later Cebel Ires Dağı), where Phoenician was a “prestige language.” The only literary evidence of the Phoenician language (belonging to the Punic phase) consists of a ten-line monologue and some sentences in the Latin comedy Poenulus of Plautus. Phoenician personal names are attested in Akkadian (mainly Assyrian) and Greek and Latin transcriptions (for Phoenician personal names, see Benz 1972; Halff 1963–1964; Jongeling 1984, 1994). Some Phoenician words are cited by Classical authors as late as Augustine (354–430 ce) (for an overview of Phoenician inscriptions, see chapter 16; for Phoenician literature, see chapter 18, this volume).
Alphabet and Script Types
Phoenician uses a consonantal alphabet of twenty-two letters, corresponding to its phonological system. Phoenician was written from right to left, as with Aramaic and Hebrew, which adopted the same script. Only the earlier inscriptions have some word dividers (short strokes or dots). Word division reappears later and occasionally (Cyprus, since the fourth century bce, and Roman Africa), in some cases probably under foreign influence (as in Roman Africa). Phoenician was deciphered in 1764 by Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, and, contemporarily, by John Swinton. Since that time, the Phoenician inscriptions have been collected in the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum (CIS I, 1881–), in the Répertoire d’épigraphie sémitique (RES, 1900–), and in corpora from specific countries; the most important texts are assembled in works such as KAI and Gibson 1982. The first grammar of the language is by Paul Schröder (1869); classical are the grammars by Zellig Sabbetai Harris (1936) and Johannes Friedrich ([1951, 1970] 1999) (see other references under “Grammars and Linguistic Studies” in Reference section at the end of the chapter). For transcriptions, the Hebrew alphabet was traditionally used and had the advantage of maintaining the right-to-left direction of writing. Now, for practical reasons, Latin letters are normally used (but not in the anthologies and in several grammars).