reflexive responses of the body to the underlying psychological state and/or the particular
FIGURE 9.2 Adaptor.
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
communication. Because, in general, they are less consciously monitored, they provide
greater access to the truthfulness of the speaker.
Nonverbal behavior physically undermines attempts of verbal deception. There are
both physiological and psychological processes at the foundation of this category of
behavior to explain this. Nonverbal behavior consists of a body of natural, subconscious,
and instinctual responses to certain stimuli [5]. These responses support the overall theme of the subconscious – to protect the individual from any mental or physical distress or
harm.
Studies of children who have been blind since birth show that they exhibit the same
basic nonverbal behaviors to stimuli as sighted people, proving the innate quality of
such behavior. A University of Chicago study [6] asked twelve sighted and twelve blind-
from-birth children to determine how much water was in a glass. When both groups
were asked how they determined their answer, both used similar gesticulations. The
researcher concluded, “The fact that someone who had never seen gestures before would
gesture, and sighted children would gesture to a partner they know can’t see, suggests
that gesturing and speaking are tightly connected in some very fundamental way in our
brains.”
Professor Stuart Campbell, at the Create Health Center for Reproduction and Advanced
Technology, pioneered a new scanning technique to view the fetus [7]. To his surprise,
images clearly showed the fetus yawning, blinking, sucking its fingers, and what seemed
to be crying and smiling. This clearly shows that facial expressions are not solely environ-
mentally learned.
A Jordanian study [8] demonstrated that lies can be detected by nonverbal cues in
Jordanians and Malaysians. They reported that discrimination between lies and truths
was clear, but was more accurate for truthful participants than for deceptive ones.
Although there appears to be clear evidence that nonverbal behaviors are innate, cultural
nonverbal behaviors also exist, demonstrating that some gesticulations are also influenced
by the learning process.
Charles Darwin observed and reported:
Some actions ordinarily associated through habit with certain states of mind may be partially repressed
through the will, and in such cases the muscles, which is least under separate control of the will, are the
most liable to act, causing movements that we recognize as expressive. In certain other cases the checking
of one habitual movement requires other slight movements and these are similarly expressive [9].
Darwin observed that fear causes freezing and breathless behavior, accompanied by a
violent heartbeat, dilated pupils, catching of the throat, cold sweat, erect hair, yawning,
dry mouth, rigid muscles, protruding eyeballs, and trembling [9].
Freud is quoted as stating, “He that has no eyes to see, and ears to hear, may convince
himself that no mortal can keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips;
betrayal oozes out of him from every pore” [4].
What both scientists noted is that there is a large range of physical reaction that is instinc-
tual or so deeply implanted by the culture that it is outside the range of conscious control.
Those responses, despite attempts at concealment or disguise, provide clues to the truth
and undermine the attempt at verbal deception. In literature, the description of this cate-
gory of nonverbal or body language is commonplace. Arthur Conan Doyle, medical doctor
9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
109
and the author of books about Sherlock Holmes, frequently used nonverbal behavior as a
major plot device, a major source from which Holmes made his deductions. In “A Study
in Scarlet,” Dr. Watson’s review of a Sherlock Holmes article is as follows:
The writer claimed by a momentary expression, a twitch of a muscle or a glance of an eye to fathom a
man’s most innermost thoughts. Deceit, according to him, was an impossibility in the case of one trained
in observation and analysis.
These physiological changes can be understood by examining the body’s reaction to fear.
When the brain perceives a threat, it prepares the body to survive it by enervation of the
sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic arousal, also commonly known as the emer-
gency, or “fight or flight” system, through neural and chemical (adrenaline) stimulation
causes many physiological changes in the body.
David B. Givens, of the Center for Nonverbal Studies, believes many of these nonverbal
behaviors are actually a psychological attempt to escape the threat: “Apparently trivial self-
touch gestures help us calm our nerves. Physical contact with a body part stimulates tactile
nerve endings and refocuses our orienting attention inward, away from the stressful events
out there [10].” (See Figure 9.3.)
In attempting to utilize these recognized changes to assess a suspect’s nonverbal behav-
ior, the interviewer can divide the body into four separate areas that respond separately,
and sometimes differentially:
• General posture
• The head and face
FIGURE 9.3 Touching the throat may be a way to cause tactile
stimulation and take the suspect’s focus away from the interviewer.
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
• The arms and hands
• The legs and feet
All four of these areas address the issue of truthfulness by providing illustrators and
adaptors to observe and assess.
GENERAL POSTURE
The first thing the FAINT interviewer will score is Posture/Demeanor. After completion
of “Personal and Medical Data,” a “þ1” will be given if posture and demeanor of the inter-
viewee is consistent with truthful behavior, a “0” is given if a difference cannot be dis-
cerned, and a “1” is given if the observed behavior is considered deceptive (Figure 9.4).
A study by James [11] in 1932 identified four basic postures:
1. Forward lean indicates attentiveness
2. Backward lean or turning away indicates refusal or negativity
3. Chest expansion indicates pride, conceit, or arrogance
4. Exaggerated forward lean with head and shoulders down indicates dejection or
depression
Research by Albert Mehrabian [12] in 1974 was consistent with James’s findings, reaf-
firming that a forward body lean indicated friendliness, whereas a backward lean was
A
B
FIGURE 9.4 (A) Truthful posture. (B) Deceptive posture.
GENERAL POSTURE
111
negative. Additionally, his earlier research (1969) supported the belief that body alignment
indicated feelings of liking, whereas misalignment indicated disliking or disagreement.
Similarly, FAINT maintains that truthful people will usually use body position as an
illustrator and have an open, settled, upright position. Often they will lean slightly forward,
indicating interest in what is being said. Shoulders tend to remain squared, and their body
is aligned with the interviewer’s [4].
FAINT main
tains that deceptive people will often show closed and defensive positions,
such as crossed arms or legs. They may lean back and/or stretch out their legs, to percep-
tually increase the distance between the interviewer and themselves (Figure 9.5). Many
times they assume a position of defeat, with their shoulders forward and their chin on their
chest [4].
Another postural gesture is a sudden shoulder shrug, universally recognized as a sign of
uncertainty and submissiveness in children’s behavior [13]. Early works in nonverbal
behavior, such as the writings of Darwin, considered the shoulder shrug. He writes: “When
a man wishes to show that he cannot do something, or prevent something being done, he
often raises with a quick movement both shoulders [9].” During the FAINT interview, when an interviewee shrugs his shoulders before answering, it is assumed that the nonverbal
response cancels his verbal response, because nonverbally he is telling us that he does
FIGURE 9.5 Stretching out legs perceptually makes the inter
viewer look farther away.
112
9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
not know the answer. For example, if when asked, “How do you feel about being inter-
viewed?” an interviewee shrugs before giving an assumed truthful response, such as
“Fine,” the positive verbal answer would be negated, and they would receive a score of “0.”
If an interviewee’s posture appears to be frozen, it may be indicative of fear. This is an
interesting phenomenon, because we would expect our body’s response to fear to prepare
us to fight or run. When we consider that there is virtually no animal predator of the human
species that humans can outrun, or outfight without a weapon, freezing may be the best
option for survival. Cleve Backster, a world-renowned polygraphist and innovator, lectured
about a third possible body response to fear classified as “freezing,” or what he referred to
as “holding and hoping [14].” Several other researchers [15] have also shown that “freezing” is in fact a third option for survival. This may be due to excessive muscle tension
caused by the threat, or a reaction caused by the amygdala’s fear center.
Interestingly, poker players also show changes in their posture based on their attitude
and hand strength. A player’s shoulders may suddenly slump when he is not confident
(weak hand). Conversely, you may notice the player is very attentive and sitting in an erect
position when he has a strong hand [16].
Many of the items previously mentioned as being of interest to Reid and Arther also fit
into this category. We expect a truthful interviewee to be somewhat friendly, cooperative,
and remain settled in his seated body and foot positions. The deceptive interviewee will often
have an uncooperative attitude, or appear overly friendly. He may also appear detached or
distant.
FIGURE 9.6 Hostile gesture.
GENERAL POSTURE
113
As the many specific explanations for nonverbal behaviors observed are considered, the
interviewer should be alert only to timely changes from the suspect’s “norm.” Proper
timing for observation and assessment of these nonverbal areas starts when the interviewer
begins to ask the question, and ends a few seconds after the suspect has answered. During
the FAINT interview, nonverbal behaviors classified as adaptors, or indicative of deceptive
behavior, will negate a verbal answer that would have been assessed as truthful (þ1),
resulting in an assessment score of “0.”
One must realize that for the deceptive suspect, the pressure of the interview creates an
unsolvable problem and conflict. Because of sympathetic arousal, the body is prepared for
fight or flight, but the suspect cannot do either. She must sit there as the interviewer ques-
tions her, while this involuntary surge of energy takes place. To dissipate some of this ner-
vous energy and to sublimate the problem, she may engage in displacement activities
(Figure 9.7). All of these species’ specific behaviors** may be indicative of deception [4]
and include:
FIGURE 9.7 Displacement activity.
**Displacement activity varies from species to species and is specific: that is, a male elk defending his
territory is compelled to stand and fight an interloper. The buck does not want to get injured or killed, but he cannot run away
sometimes a totally unrelated activity, such as scratching the ground with his hoof,
emerges to dissipate the conflict. An ostrich faced with the situation may stereotypically place its head in the sand.
114
9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
• Finger and foot tapping
• Restless body movements
• Playing with objects
• Swinging of legs
• Pulling up socks
• Smoothing out clothes
• Picking imaginary lint from clothing
• Studying the fingernails
HEAD AND FACE
Observation of the head and face begins with head positions [4]. Tilting the head to the side is an illustrator that suggests cooperation, interest, and belief in what is being said.
A slight head tilt is therefore indicative of truthfulness and demonstrates the suspect’s
desire to gain rapport. Turning one’s ear toward the person who is speaking furthers the
interviewee’s ability to hear what is being said, a sign of a truthful person. This is totally
opposite to the intent of a deceptive person, who tries to block sensory input by covering
the ears as not to hear the threatening questions. We have all observed the child who covers
both ears and makes noises so as not to hear his parents’ admonitions.
As the interviewer talks, nodding the head up and down indicates agreement by the
interviewee, and nodding from side to side indicates disagreement. Anthropologist Des-
mond Morris, in Body Watching [17], asserts that this behavior goes back to birth. Trying to put something unwanted into the baby’s mouth results in resistance by the baby moving
his head side to side: the “no” gesture. When being held by the mother, if hungry, the baby
raises his head up and down to find the nipple: the “yes” gesture.
Mehrabian’s research supports that affirmative head nods are more likely in truthful sus-
pects, finding that lower rates of head nodding are clearly correlated to deceptive commu-
nication [18].
When the interviewee’s jaw is jutted forward, it indicates hostility or aggression, and if it
is on his chest, it indicates defeat or depression (Figure 9.8) [4].
The face is the most common part of the body to observe; however, it is also the most dif-
ficult to interpret. It has a very complex muscular structure and can show more than one
emotion at a time.
It is important to analyze the face as a complex structure and isolate the individual
expressive elements to check for consistency among them. When both eyebrows are raised,
with the mouth partially open, it usually suggests surprise. One eyebrow raised indicates
confusion or skepticism. If the eyebrows are squeezed together and lowered, it suggests
anger, worry, and/or confusion (Figure 9.9).
People are aware that their facial expressions are easy to observe, and they tend to guard
them. Facial expressions also occur at high speeds. Attempts at masking or hiding bona fide
facial expre
ssions may be detected when they are held too long, occur too frequently, and
the expression is inappropriate for the matter being discussed. An exaggerated smile is
one of the most common facial masks used in an attempt to hide fear. The difference
between genuine, spontaneous reactions and masking behavior can often be detected
HEAD AND FACE
115
A
B
FIGURE 9.8 (A) If the jaw is jutted forward, not tilted, it indicates anger or aggression. (B) If the chin is on the chest, it indicates defeat, depression, and/or boredom.
because the latter does not affect the eyebrows, which normally are involved in a genuine
expression (Figure 9.10). Other common attempts used by suspects to mask include appear-
ing to be surprised, angry, or disgusted [4].
Eyes
The eyes are said to be the windows of the soul. They provide an excellent source of non-
verbal feedback. Sudden breaks in eye contact (Figure 9.11) or exaggerated eye contact are highly predicative of deception when occurring consistently and specifically to the relevant
questions. For many years the authors lectured for the University of Delaware on interview-
ing techniques in the format of a 3-day seminar for law enforcement and intelligence per-
sonnel. On the third day of the seminar, the authors would bring in a convicted felon
soon to be released on probation to be interviewed in front of the class concerning the expe-
rience of being interviewed and interrogated by police. One of the things the authors would
ask them is what they thought a police officer looked for during the interview to determine
if they were lying. Almost all of them responded, “If I had poor eye contact.” With this pre-
conception of how police determined they were lying, these criminals would attempt to
appear to look truthful by never breaking eye contact!
Many professional card players, understanding eye behavior may give away their emo-
tions (known as “tell signs”), will attempt to hide their eyes by wearing sunglasses or hats
with visors. For example, many players can’t help but stare at big hole cards, so their length
of time peeking is longer. Conversely, if a player is looking to steal the pot, he may look to
his left to see if the remaining players, who haven’t yet acted, have quickly glanced at their
Nathan J Gordon, William L Fleisher Page 17