cards and are likely to fold [16].
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
A
B
C
FIGURE 9.9 Facial expressions: surprise (A), confusion or skepticism (B), and anger (C).
People who maintain eye-to-eye contact too long are trying to simulate sincerity or
attempting to dominate you; thus, extended eye contact does not mean the person is
extremely truthful, but on the contrary, that he is deceptive.
As a result, occasionally the interviewer may be caught in a “staring contest”: a contest of
psychological dominance. The suspect may be staring purposely in order to fake truthful-
ness, but in this situation more likely to assert dominance over the interviewer. It is a good
practice to avoid becoming involved in a staring contest; however, it is important that if this
does occur, the interviewer does not break eye contact first. Trivial as it seems, loss in the
game of dominance may lead to a reversal in roles and psychologically will be viewed as
a victory over the interviewer and his task. Staring contests can be ended appropriately
by directing the interviewee’s attention to something else. For example, ask the interviewee
to look at a document or identify some object.
HEAD AND FACE
117
A
B
FIGURE 9.10 (A) Fake smile. (B) Real smile.
FIGURE 9.11 Eyes windows to the soul. Hiding the eyes, as
well as exaggerated eye contact, can be signs of deception.
Certain cultures, Zulu [19] and Hispanic [4], for example (Figure 9.12), teach their children that it is disrespectful to look authority in the eyes. We would therefore expect
the eye contact of people from these cultures to be poor throughout the interview, resulting
in no sudden observable timely changes, and therefore having no impact on the overall
assessment.
During a perceived emergency, pupils dilate, allowing for better far vision during the
threat and indicating an aroused state. Pupil dilation, when observable, is a good corollary
indicator of emotional change. The eyes dilate whenever an individual is aroused or excited
[4]. The relationship between pupil dilation and arousal was recognized hundreds of years ago in Italy [4], where women would take a solution made from the deadly nightshade
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
A
B
FIGURE 9.12 (A) In the case of an acculturated American, one would interpret the looking down as a sign of
guilt and embarrassment. (B) In the case of a Hispanic individual, this same behavior may be a sign of respect or may indicate difficulty with language.
plant and use it as eye drops to enlarge their pupils. They believed the enlarged pupils
would make them appear more sensual and beautiful. From this practice the drug bella-
donna, meaning “beautiful lady,” was invented. For hundreds of years Chinese jade mer-
chants wore dark glasses so that other merchants doing business with them could not
measure their delight in a particular piece of jade and raise the price [4]. The problem of observation arises with interviewees with dark eyes, because it is difficult to differentiate
the pupil from the iris.
Beyond pupil dilation, there is other information that can be derived from observing the
eyes. This includes closing, squinting, and blinking of the eyes.
Closed eyes suggest trying to mentally escape and block visual sensory input. Squinting
suggests distrust and can occur during a time of emergency to help protect the eye from
being struck during a battle [4]. Increased eye blinking can also be a cue to deception. Blinking rates appear to correspond to psychological arousal [20], with the average blink rate of 20 per minute, each lasting about a quarter second. A Japanese study [21] concluded that blink rate patterns could provide an additional index for the detection of deception. Burgoon concluded, “Deceivers display increased pupil dilation, blinking rates and adaptors,
more segments of body behavior, and fewer segments of facial behavior [22].”
Humans generally show two eye whites, one on each side of the pupil. During World
War II, the Japanese discovered that when three eye whites (white appearing on both sides
of the pupil, as well as underneath) appear (Figure 9.13), it is another excellent indicator of extreme arousal, which they called san pak ku [22]. It was also known as the “eyes of death.”
HEAD AND FACE
119
FIGURE 9.13 San pak ku.
One eyebrow raised is a sign of skepticism [20]. Having both eyebrows raised, accompa-
nied by an open mouth, indicates surprise. If the eyebrows are pulled up and in with a
slightly open mouth, it indicates fear. When the eyebrows are pulled down and in, with a
tight mouth, the emotion is usually anger. Rubbing the eyes appears to send the nonverbal
message, “I cannot see it.” If you are talking to a person and she rubs her eyes, she is telling
you nonverbally that she does not see what you are saying (Figure 9.14). If the gesture
occurs as she is talking, she does not want to see what she is saying [23]. Another physiological explanation for the rubbing of the eyes is that the release of histamine during sym-
pathetic nervous system arousal may cause persons sensitive to this hormone/chemical
transmitter to have itchy eyes, which are reflexively scratched.
FIGURE 9.14 Rubbing the eye is a sign of disbelief.
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
Mouth
The lips and mouth offer us another facial zone for analysis. Much of the information
afforded us in this zone is associated with the “dry mouth” phenomenon caused by the lack
of saliva due to the enervation of the sympathetic nervous system. Because digestion and
waste elimination are not of primary importance if one is about to be seriously injured or
die, the activities of these systems are inhibited. As a result, salivation, which helps break
down food and lubricate it for its journey into the body’s digestive system, is also inhibited.
This “dry mouth” syndrome may result in numerous observable nonverbal behaviors, such
as an increase in swallowing, licking of the lips, clicking noises during speech, a bobbing
Adam’s apple, and white foam (albumin) developing in the corners of the mouth [4].
Licking the lips due to this “dry mouth” condition is therefore a sign of stress. Females
sometimes engage in this behavior as a courting gesture. However, courting gestures
are inappropriate for the investigative setting and should be looked on as a possible
attempt to sway the interviewer’s decisions, or divert him from vigorous pursuit of the
inquiry.
Physiologically during “fight/flight” the throat muscles expand to allow more air to be
inhaled into the lungs. This increases the amount of oxygen available to the body and
may be responsible for the sensation of a “lump in the throat” often experienced with
emotional states such as fear [24]. This phenomenon may cause a need to clear the throat.
Clearing the throat is our natural way to dislodge anything caught there. A lie can be some-
thing “psychologically” caught in the throat and, therefore, cause a need to clear it.
Tenseness of the lips, biting of the lips, or snarling may occur. When the lips are tense
they tend to thin out, indicating anger or stress. Biting the lips may be an attempt not to talk
or
blurt out the truth, or could be a method of self-punishment. Snarling is clearly an
FIGURE 9.15 Lips.
HEAD AND FACE
121
aggressive behavior. Exposing the tongue or biting on it can be a gesture indicative of think-
ing, or a courting gesture for females.
Many deceptive subjects feel a tickling sensation near the epiglottis. The need for saliva-
tion may also be accompanied by subconscious attempts to enervate salivation, which can
be observed as an increase in swallowing, or a bobbing Adam’s apple. Another physiologi-
cal explanation for some of these behaviors is the amygdala, part of the limbic system,
which can be stimulated by emotional arousal and subsequently cause involuntary body
movements associated with olfaction and eating [25]. These behaviors include licking,
chewing, and swallowing. The liar may also experience butterflies in the stomach caused
by the sudden cessation of the digestive process and diversion of the blood used in it to
other parts of the body where it is needed more, and may also exhibit unusual episodes
of burping and belching.
Darwin reported that there was a strong tendency for yawning behavior during fear [9].
Although some have argued that this behavior indicates a physiological need for an
increase in oxygen, it also carries a strong psychological message of aggression. The lion
tamer approaches bravely until the lion yawns, baring its teeth and sending a message that
coming closer may result in being bitten. The lion tamer then knows that he or she is caus-
ing the lion discomfort by the invasion of space, and backs off. Darwin also reported open-
ing of the mouth as a nonverbal sign of surprise [9].
Lip pursing is a sign of disagreement with what is being said, signaling mental resistance.
Now-incarcerated Ilich Ramirez-Sanchez, aka “Carlos the Jackal,” the internationally
known terrorist, is reported to chew his lip when under stress. This was observed when
he led the terrorist attack on the OPEC Council in Vienna, Austria.
There are also psychological nonverbal adaptor behaviors associated with the face [9].
Throughout our lives we are taught that if something foul comes from the mouth – a cough,
FIGURE 9.16 Lip pursing.
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
or a sneeze – we should place our hands over our mouths to protect others from it. A lie can
be something “psychologically foul” coming from the mouth, and an unconscious adaptive
behavior, easily observable, is unconsciously utilized. The deceptive suspect may also place
his spread-open fingers over his mouth, as if they act as a sieve, sifting the words passing
through them.
Nose
There appears to be a link between deception and the nose. Perhaps it is because the
nerve network for emotions, to a large extent, evolved from our neural networks involved
in smelling [26]. The sense of smell was primitive man’s fundamental survival mechanism.
Touching or pinching the nose is a reliable gesture of disbelief [4]. The nonverbal mes-
sage appears to be “it stinks” (Figure 9.17). If you are talking and the listener pinches his nose, he is nonverbally communicating that he thinks what you are saying stinks. If he is
talking and pinches his nose, he thinks what he is saying stinks.
It appears these hands-to-face gestures of disbelief serve as minor acts of self-comfort
needed at times of mental conflict. This mental conflict may be associated with the suspect’s
inability to voice his opinion that the interviewer is not being truthful, or his own inability
A
B
C
FIGURE 9.17 Sense gestures: (A) pinching the nose ("it stinks"); (B) skepticism; (C) thought.
ARMS AND HANDS
123
to tell the truth and face his punishment. It is the author’s experience that nose running and
picking occurs much more often with deceptive interviewees.
As indicated earlier, during an emergency the body’s senses are enhanced. Changes in
the blood flow or chemistry such as the presence of histamine in the sensory organs may
also physiologically account for itching and tickling sensations resulting in observable non-
verbal behaviors, such as touching of the eyes, nose, and ears during deception.
These changes in blood flow may also result in facial color changes. A red face generally
corresponds to embarrassment and shame and is not a sign of aggression [23]. When the
body is at the height of fear, blood flows in deeper vessels, ensuring that if the person is
cut during the fight, they will not bleed to death. The resulting “ghost-white” appearance
therefore signifies someone who is highly threatened and may attack. This person is experi-
encing extreme fear [4].
ARMS AND HANDS
Arm and hand movements give clearer nonverbal cues. Very few people pay attention to
what their hands are doing and, therefore, do not attempt to mask these subconscious gestures.
Moreover, hand movements are less fleeting than the facial expressions, are easily observable,
and are the main nonverbal means of recognizing illustrators and adaptors. Remember,
increased illustrators are signs of truthfulness, and adaptors are signs of deception.
A young scared child will run to his parents for protection. The parents hold and rub the
child, kinetically telling him that everything will be okay. As adults, these learned gestures
appear to still serve the same purpose, psychologically reassuring us when we are fright-
ened or in danger. Rosenfeld [27] demonstrated that these hand-to-body adaptor gestures
increase with fear and stress.
The suspect may also use her arms and hands to set up defensive barriers (Figure 9.18).
These barriers are used to establish safe zones around herself for protective or territorial
reasons. In the interview setting, physical barriers such as desks, chairs, or partitions are
likely to be unavailable. When inanimate barriers are not available, they may be established
by crossed arms or legs, or by outstretched legs [4].
Arms across the chest may also suggest defiance [4]. The higher the arms, it appears, the more defiant the suspect. An exaggerated lean forward with arms crossed may indicate an
antagonistic attitude. These individuals are extremely confident in their ability to resist the
interviewer’s attempts to ascertain the truth. On the other hand, if there are no other indi-
cators of stress and the suspect has his arms crossed across his stomach, it is more likely an
illustrative sign of truthfulness [4].
More important is a sudden crisscrossing of the arms and legs. For example, stop reading
and cross your arms and legs. Wait a few seconds, and crisscross them. Which position did
you feel more comfortable in? Chances are you were more comfortable in the initial posi-
tion. Therefore, if a suspect has his arms or legs crossed, and suddenly crisscrosses them
as you ask a relevant question, this should be viewed as a high-stress gesture, because they
were probably more comfortable in their initial position.
Palm-down gestures signify the speaker is confident and asserting control [10]. It
appears to also universally send a calming message, or may serve to emphasize what the
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9. NONVERBAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
FIGURE 9.18 Calming gestures.
&
nbsp; speaker is saying. Palms held out facing another person is a clear sign of disagreement, or
an attempt to stop the other person from talking [4]. The position of a person’s palm sends clear nonverbal messages even when used to shake hands. If a person shakes your hand
keeping the palm of his hand pointed down and your hand on the bottom, palm facing
up, it is a sign of their perceived superior position.
If the suspect is pointing away from her body, as she is making a denial (i.e., “I didn’t do
it”), subconsciously she may be trying to misdirect the interviewer’s attention away from
the topic of herself [4]. This adaptor is comparable to the magician’s misdirection or boxer’s feint to the side before punching. On the other hand, a suspect who touches her chest as she
makes a denial is directing the interviewer to look at her; she has nothing to hide. The ges-
ture in this latter instance is an illustrator [4] (Figure 9.19).
A suspect whose elbows are close to the body suggests that he is under severe tension
[4]. This can be associated with protecting one’s own body and providing a self-reassuring touch. When someone sits with his elbows away from the body, it shows that he is relaxed,
less defensive, and more likely to be truthful (Figure 9.20) [4].
As a caveat, certain arm and hand movements need to be differentiated because they are
used differently among various subpopulations. For instance, women and gay males experi-
encing an increase in tension tend to put their hands to their throats, gently touching them
with the tips of their fingers, while straight males tend to finger the collars of their shirts.
Rubbing the back of the neck is a stressful gesture that may reflect deception (Figure 9.21)
[10]. Putting both hands behind the head and clasping them is a sign of dominance [20].
If a suspect’s hands are steepled, it shows a superior attitude, and possible truthfulness
(Figure 9.22). The higher the steepling, the more confident the person is. Investigators who have had the opportunity to testify in court probably have been “steepled” by an attorney.
Nathan J Gordon, William L Fleisher Page 18