Moscow, 1937

by Karl Schlogel

  All his declarations of approval of the Soviet state and the Stalin Constitution, and his efforts to ‘remake himself’, were to no avail. As a Soviet patriot, Ustrialov remained suspect, a ‘Harbin émigré’. Even worse, on 5 September 1935, after a drive with Maxim Gorky, he had recorded in his diary the route from the city centre to the Mozhaisk Highway. His description contained the following information: ‘Here is an important stretch of road: the district with the dachas belonging to Stalin, Voroshilov and other famous people.’ The NKVD official had underlined this passage. There can be no doubt that in his eyes this description proved that Ustrialov was making preparations ‘for an assassination attempt against the Soviet leadership’.

  23

  Celebrating the October Revolution on 7 November 1937

  The festivities which took place on 7 November 1937 to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the October Revolution were a high point in the 1937 calendar. This date – 7 November – was the culmination of many projects which had to be completed by then: buildings, films and exhibitions. 7 November was a kind of deadline: it set limits and defined the temporal and working rhythms of the capital, and even the whole country. The calendar of festivities was an assertion of power, which nevertheless imposed on it a peculiar form of self-restraint; it may even be said to have put itself in zugzwang. The pressure created by organizing the festivities made a significant contribution to the tension and the confusion of 1937. On 7 November 1937, Soviet power did not so much celebrate the event of twenty years before as the fact that it had survived and asserted itself. More important than the memory of its heroic beginnings was the confirmation that it could continue to function. For this reason the celebrations of 7 November were really just one aspect of the mobilization of opinion throughout the year in anticipation of the elections to the Supreme Soviet, which were to take place one month later, on 12 December 1937. Important as was the retrospective view, the mythologization of Bolshevik power and the labour of reinterpreting the history of the Revolution in order to legitimize the Stalin regime, what formed the decisive aspect of the process was the successful assertion of power, which even after twenty years had not really gone beyond the maintenance of the state of emergency.

  Hundreds of thousands, indeed millions of people took part in the October celebrations, all with their own experiences, observations and reflections. The following two accounts come from eyewitnesses, albeit of quite different origins and positions in the Moscow of 1937. The first, Joseph Davies, the US ambassador, was a diplomat; the other, Georgi Dimitrov, a communist functionary. The first was a recent arrival at his diplomatic post in Moscow, representing the opinions and expectations of a member of the American elite from the Midwest. He had an open mind about Russia and was perhaps a little naïve; but he was a keen observer who made a real attempt to make sense of what he saw. Dimitrov, on the other hand, came from the Bulgarian revolutionary movement and had long been an authoritative leader of international communism. He had achieved worldwide fame with his courageous and skilful stand at the trial in Leipzig following the Reichstag fire. The former had a privileged seat in the diplomats’ box; the latter had direct access to Stalin, with whom he could converse on the periphery of the festivities. Both men kept diaries. One gave a report looking on from the outside; the other reported from the inside.

  In the diplomats’ box

  Joseph Davies, the American ambassador, summarized his observations in a meticulous report of 15 November to the State Department. His account provides a vivid picture of the course taken by the celebrations.1

  Sir,

  Three days – November 6, 7 and 8, 1937 – were designated by the Soviet government as national holidays for the celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the Soviet Revolution.

  The outstanding events provided for by the official programme were:

  (a) A large public meeting (by invitation) held on Saturday evening, November 6, at the Bolshoi Opera House.

  (b) A celebration in Red Square on Sunday, November 7, with a review of the Red Army units as well as marching civilian clubs by Stalin, the Secretary General of the Communist Party, and a party consisting of President Kalinin, Premier Molotov, Marshall Voroshilov, and other party leaders.

  (c) A reception extended to the members of the Diplomatic Corps by the Foreign Office which was held at the Spiridonovka which is the formal entertainment house provided by the government for such occasions.

  Celebrations at the Bolshoi Opera House This meeting was scheduled to begin at 6 o’clock on Saturday afternoon. Tickets of admission for this celebration were not delivered, however, to the members of the Diplomatic Corps until late Saturday afternoon. Long before that hour the square in front of the handsome old Royal Opera House was crowded with people. Immediately in front of the theatre there were two white, large and beautiful statues of Stalin and Lenin surrounded by flags and standards of the various Constituent Republics of the U.S.S.R. with a background of red bunting and flowers indirectly lighted. The façade of the old opera house was similarly decorated and most effective by reason of indirect-lighting effects with four large portraits of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin extending across the entire front of the theatre. The interior was similarly and impressively decorated. The six tiers of boxes on the horseshoe curve2 were separated by long continuous red streamers bearing Communist slogans, all lettered in gold. The stage, which is at least eighty feet wide, was hung with red plush draperies as a background for still another white statue of Lenin, with a large portrait of Stalin immediately back of it – all profusely banked with flowers. A long table extended in front of the stage – at which were seated President Kalinin and a group of officials of the government. In the second tier, and immediately behind Kalinin, sat Stalin, Voroshilov, and Yezhov (head of the secret police). At the opening of the meeting there was much enthusiasm and continuous applause.

  Figure 23.1 Special issue of Rundschau on the twentieth anniversary of the founding of the USSR

  ‘On 7 November 1937, Soviet power did not so much celebrate the event of twenty years before as the fact that it had survived and asserted itself.’

  Premier Molotov delivered an address from the speaker’s dais. It was a scholarly address. The speech lasted approximately two hours. Delivery was uninspiring but met with frequent applause, particularly whenever the name ‘Stalin’ was mentioned. During the long discourse it was noted that Stalin, Voroshilov, and Yezhov in the rear line were quite obviously whispering and joking among themselves.

  Following the speech there was an intermission of thirty minutes, and a cold buffet supper was served to the Diplomatic Corps in the foyer immediately back of the diplomatic boxes.

  After the intermission there was shown a Soviet motion picture depicting Lenin and his activities for the three days immediately prior to the overthrow of the Kerensky government. The picture was well done. Propaganda was, of course, omnipresent. Stalin was quite obviously dragged into the picture for several ‘shots’ apparently to establish that affectionate confidence existed between Lenin and Stalin. The programme following the movie consisted of songs, folk dances, and so forth and lasted until well along into the morning.

  The Red Square Celebrations All holders of the tickets were required to be in their places by 9.30 Sunday morning. Tickets were delivered only the night before and, in some instances, at 8 o’clock that morning. Only heads of missions and first secretaries could secure tickets. Practically the entire Diplomatic Corps was present in the diplomatic box, which was immediately adjacent to the reviewing stand on top of Lenin’s Tomb, where Stalin, Kalinin, Voroshilov, Yezhov, and others stood. Immediately opposite and facing the reviewing stand in front of the Kremlin, and at both ends of the Square also, were companies of soldiers and sailors, with standards, standing at attention. These were probably six or seven thousand in number. The band, of approximately six or eight hundred pieces, was impressive. On the walls of the building facing the spectators were the omnipresent red ban
ners and flags with slogans. Outstanding, among these, translated in all the languages was the slogan ‘Workers of the World Unite’. Promptly at 10 o’clock Voroshilov, the head of the Red Army, galloped out of the Kremlin gate on a very beautiful horse and reviewed each unit of the standing troops, accompanied by the head of the Moscow Military District, Marshall Budyonny, and their aides. The parade, thereafter, followed, proceeding in front of the reviewing stand, with Stalin, Molotov, Kalinin, Yezhov, Dimitrov (head of the Comintern), and Marshalls Voroshilov, Yegorov, and Budyonny standing at attention. The various military units which passed in review are described in the attached memorandum prepared at my request by the Military Attaché, Colonel Faymonville, who is attached to this mission.

  With the conclusion of the military exhibition at about 12.30, the Diplomatic Corps quite generally departed. Stalin and the leaders of the government, however, remained to carry on the review of the civilian marchers who continued to pass through the Red Square all afternoon, until dusk.

  Reception at the Spiridonovka So far as the Diplomatic Corps was concerned, the festivities of the celebration were concluded with the reception for the Diplomatic Corps at the Spiridonovka, the official entertainment building of the government. This is a very large and rather impressive house, admirably adapted for entertaining. Like these other large houses in Moscow, it was built by a merchant prince prior to the Revolution. In the absence of the People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, Litvinov, and his first assistant, Potemkin, at the Brussels Conference, the guests were received by Vice-Commissar Stomoniakov and his wife, also Madame Litvinov. The entire Diplomatic Corps seemed to be present. Three quarters of an hour was devoted to a musical programme, which was excellent. The outstanding feature of it was the appearance of two youthful prodigies – a girl violinist, aged 14, and a boy cellist, aged 15 – both of whom had won first places at the international contest in Brussels this summer. At 12 o’clock a very sumptuous banquet was served. There was a profusion of excellent food, made the more noticeable by the exceptionally beautiful china and gold plate of the old royalist regime.

  General features No effort was spared by the authorities to create a festive atmosphere throughout the city. For days preceding scaffoldings were being erected and workers were engaged in placing huge flags and a profusion of red bunting with their various slogans throughout the city.

  Oil Paintings for Posters Several months ago I had occasion to visit the institutes where artists, all working for the government, were engaged in their work. I found that practically all of the more note-worthy artists were employed in painting large murals for this twentieth anniversary of the Revolution, for the Red Army celebration, and for various government institutions. These paintings were evident in great profusion here. Huge lithographic mural oil paintings depicting historic scenes of the Revolution and portraits of the various government leaders were displayed attached to the sides of the buildings, and some of them were of a size of at least 30 by 20 feet. These were generally illumined at night by indirect lighting. These oil paintings were supplemented by innumerable lithographic posters, not printed but done in crayon either in colours or in black and white.

  As heretofore stated, there were also large plaster statues of Lenin and Stalin both in white and in bronze. On the corner façade of one of the prominent buildings in the centre of Moscow there was suspended above the street level a huge statue of Lenin attached to the side of the building and measuring at least thirty feet in height.

  Shop windows in all of the principal business streets were profusely decorated with the ever-present red bunting and many exhibits. There was an obvious motif on one of the principal streets to feature in these exhibits the activities of the Soviet Union in the care and attention devoted to children and to the youth movement.

  Speeding Up Construction It was quite noticeable that the preparations for these holidays were characterized by a speeding up generally of the work of repairing and cleaning the streets and roads leading into the city, and a general stimulus being given to building enterprises under the course of construction so as to be finished in time to commemorate the anniversary of the Red Revolution. The large bridge, for instance, leading from Red Square in front of the Kremlin and across the Moscow River and which has been under construction for the past year, had indications of feverish activity about it prior to the Red Day celebration and work was hurried by night and by day so to have the bridge open for the ‘Workers’ and Peasants’ Army’ celebration in the Red Square on 7 November.

  Food Stands A feature that attracted my attention was the large number of temporary stands erected by the Food Commissariat in the centre of the city for the serving of sandwiches, drinks, et cetera. The food looked attractive, clean, and was well exhibited. There was also a large number of small refreshment automobile vans similar to the ice-cream-cone vendor found in the cities of the United States.

  Exceptional and Significant Features The unusual features which attracted my attention and which were the particular subjects of notice among members of the Diplomatic Corps who had seen previous celebrations of the kind, it occurs to me, might be of value to the Department.

  Absence of Slogans Attacking Capitalistic Nations It was noted particularly that there was a marked difference in this celebration as contrasted to that of last year in the absence of slogans, transparencies, and picturizations, assailing capitalistic countries and the Fascist enemies. Personally I noticed only three caricatures aimed at Germany.

  Executive Ability and Organization What made a distinct impression upon me among other things was the fact that these events gave indications of a high degree of executive ability. They were well planned and were carried through on the minute with the most exact dispatch. The formal occasions also were very well done with impressive dignity and precision.

  Red Square Military Display The show which the naval and military forces put on was distinctly impressive. The equipment, the man power, and the officers of these various outfits appeared to be first class. The mechanized units – tanks, mounted machine guns, and artillery – which shot across Red Square at a high rate of speed were exceptionally impressive.

  The general report of the military attachés, as I understand from Colonel Faymonville, is to the effect that it was a first-class exhibition of military strength; that nothing new had been uncovered in contrast to the review of last May; and that there seems to be a disposition on the part of the authorities not to disclose unduly all they may have had. Generally speaking, the military display was practically the same as that which occurred last May.

  Red Square Civilian Demonstration The most impressive feature of the Red Square celebration to me personally was the demonstration of the marching workers both during and after the military exhibition. Interspersed among the regular military units reviewed by Marshall Voroshilov, there were approximately several thousand civilians who marched in company formation armed with rifles but all in promiscuous civilian and none too good attire. They were called the Proletarian Rifle Division.3 From 12.30 on throughout the whole afternoon, however, the entire Red Square was jammed with the civilian marching populace (working men’s clubs) who entered the Red Square simultaneously from three converging streets. These streets were jammed for miles with the crowds which had been marching all morning and which would be marching all through the afternoon in order to pass before the reviewing stand in front of the Kremlin. Within the Square itself there was a perfect sea of standards, transparencies, banners with slogans, and small allegorical models and statues which were being carried by thousands of apparently enthusiastic marchers. It was a mixed crowd of both sexes and all ages and there were many babies and small children carried on the shoulders of parents so that they might catch a glimpse of Stalin. The enthusiasm was being constantly whipped up by martial music by the band hereinbefore referred to. There was also what appeared to be a kind of ‘cheer leader’ who every now and then and invisibly but through large loud-speakers kept calling for h
uzzahs for the leaders and ideals of the Revolution.

  The Secret Police (NKVD, Formerly GPU) A distinct impression was left of the prominence of the secret police (People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs) during the celebration. The Commissar Yezhov, who is a man of very short stature, almost a dwarf, but with a very fine head and face, was constantly close to Stalin but quite unobtrusively.

  During the military review there were probably four or five thousand marching men of the secret police. They are, in fact, a strictly military organization. They (both officers and men) were noticeably well clothed, smart and well drilled. Their marching was noticeably good. It was a modified goose step. Their cavalry outfits were especially spectacular and well turned out.

  During the civilian demonstration in Red Square it was very noticeable and significant that scattered through the crowd which was jammed into this Square there were in four long parallel lines hundreds of the blue- and green- capped soldiers of these secret police. While ostensibly this was for the purpose of preserving marching formation, it was obvious that the protective purpose was also present, for in front of the reviewing stand and along the entire square there were lines of the green-capped secret police, the border guards.