12.Lorenzo Cotula, “The International Political Economy of the Global Land Rush: A Critical Appraisal of Trends, Scale, Geography and Drivers,” Journal of Peasant Studies 39:3–4, 2012, 666.
13.Philip McMichael, “The land grab and corporate food regime restructuring,” Journal of Peasant Studies 39:3–4, 2012, 690.
14.Klaus Deininger, “Challenges Posed by the New Wave of Farmland Investment,” Journal of Peasant Studies 38: 2, 2011, 218.
15.Nizar Manek, “Karuturi Demands Compensation from Ethiopia for Failed Land Deal,” Bloomberg, September 21, 2017.
16.See Benjamin Niemark, S. Mahanty, and W. Dressler, “Mapping Value in a ‘Green’ Commodity Frontier: Revisiting Commodity Chain Analysis,” Development and Change, 472, 2016, 240–65.
17.Jim Lane, “In for a Penny, In for a Pound: The Advanced Bioeconomy and All the Pivots,” Biofuels Digest, December 28, 2017.
18.Carol Hunsberger, Laura German, and Ariane Goetz, “‘Unbundling’ the Biofuel Promise: Querying the Ability of Liquid Biofuels to Deliver on Socio-economic Policy Expectations,” Energy Policy 108, 2017, 791–805.
19.Ibid.
20.Tania Murray Li, “After the Land Grab: Infrastructural Violence and the ‘Mafia System’ in Indonesia’s Oil Palm Plantation Zones,” Geoforum 96, 2018.
21.L. J. Smith and M. S. Torn, “Ecological Limits to Terrestrial Biological Carbon Dioxide Removal,” Climatic Change 118, 2013, 89–103.
22.Patrick Moriarty and Damon Honnery, “Review: Assessing the Climate Mitigation Potential of Biomass,” AIMS Energy 5:1 2017.
23.Timothy Searchinger, Tim Beringer, and Asa Strong, “Does the World Have Low-Carbon Bioenergy Potential from the Dedicated Use of Land?,” Energy Policy 110, 2015, 434–46. See also Joseph Fargione et al., “Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt,” Science 319:6857, 2008.
24.Warren Cornwall, “Is Wood a Green Source of Energy? Scientists Are Divided,” Science, January 5, 2017.
25.Eric Roston, The Carbon Age: How Life’s Core Element Has Become Civilization’s Greatest Threat, New York: Walker & Co., 2008.
26.David Biello, “Whatever Happened to Advanced Biofuels?,” Scientific American, May 26, 2016, scientificamerican.com.
27.Stephen Mayfield, “The Green Revolution 2.0: The Potential of Algae for the Production of Biofuels and Bioproducts,” Genome 56, 2013, 551–5.
28.Ann C. Wilkie et al., “Indigenous Algae for Local Bioresource Production: Phycoprospecting,” Energy for Sustainable Development 15, 2011, 365–71.
29.Colin M. Beal et al., “Integrating Algae with Bioenergy Carbon Capture and Storage (ABECCS) Increases Sustainability,” Earth’s Future 6, 2018.
30.I. Ajjawi, et al., “Lipid Production in Nannochloropsis gaditana Is Doubled by Decreasing Expression of a Single Transcriptional Regulator,” Nature Biotechnology 35, 2017, 647–52.
31.Kelsey Piper, “Silicon Valley Wants to Fight Climate Change with These “Moonshot” Ideas,” Vox, Oct. 26, 2018, vox.com.
32.Natalie Hicks et al., “Using Prokaryotes for Carbon Capture Storage,” Trends in Biotechnology 351, 2017, 22–32.
33.Mathilde Fajardy and Niall Mac Dowell, “Can BECCS Deliver Sustainable and Resource Efficient Negative Emissions?,” Energy and Environmental Science, 10, 2017, 1389–1426.
2 Cultivating the Seas
1.Seasteading Institute, “Project Oasis,” seasteading.org/project-oasis.
2.D. Krause-Jensen and C. M. Duarte, “Substantial Role of Macroalgae in Marine Carbon Sequestration, Nature Geoscience 9, 2016, 737–42.
3.Adam D. Hughes et al., “Biogas from Macroalge: Is It Time to Revisit the Idea?,” Biotechnology for Biofuels 5, 2012, 86.
4.Rasmus Bjerregaard et al., Seaweed Aquaculture for Food Security, Income Generation and Environmental Health in Tropical Developing Countries, Washington, DC: World Bank Group, 2016, documents.worldbank.org.
5.Ibid.
6.Robert D. Kinley et al., “The Red Macroalgae Asparagopsis taxiformis Is a Potent Natural Antimethanogenic That Reduces Methane Production during In Vitro Fermentation with Rumen Fluid,” Animal Production Science 56:3, 2016, 282–9.
7.Howard Wilcox, “The Ocean as Supplier of Food and Energy,” Experientia 38, 1982, 32.
8.Antoine de Ramon N’Yeurt et al., “Negative Carbon via Ocean Afforestation,” Process Safety and Environmental Protection 90, 2012, 467–74.
9.Stuart W. Bunting, Principles of Sustainable Aquaculture: Promoting Social, Economic and Environmental Resilience, New York: Routledge, 2013.
10.E. J. Cottier-Cook et al. “Policy Brief: Safeguarding the Future of the Global Seaweed Aquaculture Industry,” Hamilton, ON: UNUINWEH and SAMS, 2016.
11.Sander W. K. van den Burg et al., “The Economic Feasibility of Seaweed Production in the North Sea,” Aquaculture Economics and Management 203, 2016, 235–52.
12.Hughes et al., “Biogas from Microalgae.”
13.Xi Xiao et al., “Nutrient Removal from Chinese Coastal Waters by Large-Scale Seaweed Aquaculture,” Nature Scientific Reports 7:46, 2017, 616.
14.Cottier-Cook et al., “Policy Brief.”
15.Calvyn Ik Kyo Chung, F. A. Sondak, and John Beardall, “The Future of Seaweed Aquaculture in a Rapidly Changing World,” European Journal of Phycology 524, 2017, 495–505.
16.Krause-Jensen and Duarte, “Macroalgae in Marine Carbon Sequestration.”
17.Jason Zhang et al., “Big Picture Resilience via Ocean Forests,” presentation, ASCE Innovation Conference, 2016.
18.Alastair Bland, “As Oceans Warm, the World’s Kelp Forests Begin to Disappear,” Yale Environment 360, November 20, 2017.
3 Regenerating
1.Matthew Kearnes and Lauren Rickards, “Earthly Graves for Environmental Futures: Techno-burial Practices,” Futures 92, 2017, 48–58.
2.The Land Institute, “Kernza Grain: Toward a Perennial Agriculture,” landinstitute.org/our-work/perennial-crops/kernza.
3.L. Hunter Lovins et al., A Finer Future: Creating an Economy in Service to Life, Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers, 2018, 61.
4.Brian Barth, “Carbon Farming: Hope for a Hot Planet,” Modern Farmer, March 25, 2016.
5.Keith Paustian et al., “Climate-Smart Soils,” Nature 532, 2016, 49–57.
6.David D. Briske et al., “The Savory Method Can Not Green Deserts or Reverse Climate Change,” Rangelands 355, 2013, 72–4.
7.Rebecca Lave, “The Future of Environmental Expertise,” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 1052, 2015, 244–52.
8.Lovins et al., A Finer Future, 178.
9.Charles Eisenstein, Climate: A New Story, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2018, 180.
10.Ibid., 181.
11.National Research Council, Climate Intervention: Carbon Dioxide Removal and Reliable Sequestration, Washington, DC: National Academies of Science, 2015.
12.Anne-Marie Codor et al., Hope Below Our Feet: Soil as a Climate Solution, Global Development and Environment Institute Climate Policy Brief 4, 2017.
13.Paustian et al., “Climate-Smart Soils.”
14.Salk Institute, “Harnessing Plants Initiative,” salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative.
15.Paustian et al., “Climate-Smart Soils.”
16.See T. Thamo, and D. J. Pannell, “Challenges in Developing Effective Policy for Soil Carbon Sequestration: Perspectives on Additionality, Leakage, and Permanence,” Climate Policy 16:8, 2016 and Pete Smith, “Soil Carbon Sequestration and Biochar as Negative Emission Technologies,” Global Change Biology 22, 2015, 1315–24.
17.Smith, “Soil Carbon Sequestration.”
18.Kristen Ohlson, The Soil Will Save Us: How Scientists, Farmers, and Foodies are Healing the Soil to Save the Planet, New York: Rodale, 2014.
19.National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2019, 80.
20.Julia Rosen, “Vast Bioenergy Plantations Cou
ld Stave Off Climate Change and Radically Reshape the Planet,” Science, Feb. 15, 2018, sciencemag.org.
21.See R. A. Houghton, “The Emissions of Carbon from Deforestation and Degradation in the Tropics: Past Trends and Future Potential,” Carbon Management 45, 2013, 539–46; and Timothy M. Lenton, “The Potential for Land-Based Biological CO2 Removal to Lower Future Atmospheric CO2 Concentration,” Carbon Management 11, 2010, 145–60.
22.Simon Evans, “World Can Limit Warming to 1.5C ‘without BECCS,’” Carbon Brief, 2018, carbonbrief.org.
23.Detlef Van Vuuren et al., “Alternative Pathways to the 1.5°C Target Can Reduce the Need for Negative Emission Technologies,” Nature Climate Change 8, 2018, 391–7.
24.Kim Naudts et al., “Europe’s Forest Management Did Not Mitigate Climate Warming,” Science 351, 2016, 6273.
25.Brendan Mackey et al., “Policy Options for the World’s Primary Forests in Multilateral Environmental Agreements,” Conservation Letters 82, 2015, 139–47.
26.National Research Council, Climate Intervention, 2015.
27.Gabiel Popkin, “How Much Can Forests Fight Climate Change?,” Nature, Jan. 15, 2019, nature.com.
28.W. Sunderlin et al., “How Are REDD+ Proponents Addressing Tenure Problems? Evidence from Brazil, Cameroon, Tanzania, Indonesia, and Vietnam,” World Development 55, 2013, 37–52.
29.Jon Unruh, “Tree-Based Carbon Storage in Developing Countries: Neglect of the Social Sciences,” Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal, 24:2, 2011, 185–92.
30.K. Suiseeya and S. Caplow, “In Pursuit of Procedural Justice: Lessons from an Analysis of 56 Forest Carbon Project Designs,” Global Environmental Change 23, 2013, 968–79.
31.Kristen Lyons and Peter Westoby, “Carbon Colonialism and the New Land Grab: Plantation Forestry in Uganda and Its Livelihood Impacts,” Journal of Rural Studies 36, 2014, 13–21.
32.Eric Lambin and Patrick Meyfroidt, “Global Land Use Change, Economic Globalization, and the Looming Land Scarcity,” PNAS, 2011, pnas.org.
33.E. Mcleod et al., “A Blueprint for Blue Carbon: Toward an Improved Understanding of the Role of Vegetated Coastal Habitats in Sequestering CO2,” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 7, 2011, 362–70.
34.C. Nellemann et al., Blue Carbon: A Rapid Response Assessment 78, United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, 2009.
35.Ibid.
36.Sophia Johannessen and Robie Macdonald, “Geoengineering with Seagrasses: Is Credit Due where Credit Is Given?,” Environmental Research Letters 11, 2016.
37.Shu Kee Lam et al., “The Potential for Carbon Sequestration in Australian Agricultural Soils Is Technically and Economically Limited,” Nature Scientific Reports 3, 2013, 2179.
38.Kearnes and Rickards, “Earthly Graves.”
39.Bronson W. Griscom et al., “Natural Climate Solutions,” PNAS 114:44, 2017, 11645–50.
4 Capturing
1.Elizabeth Kolbert, “Can Carbon Dioxide Removal Save the World?,” New Yorker, November 20, 2017.
2.Joelle Seal, “SaskPower’s Carbon Capture Future Hangs in the Balance,” CBC News, November. 23, 2017, cbc.ca.
3.IEA, 20 Years of Carbon Capture and Storage: Accelerating Future Deployment, Paris:OECD/IEA, 2016; Juho Lipponen et al., “The Politics of Large-Scale CCS Deployment,” Energy Procedia 114, 2017, 7581–95.
4.Glen Peters and Oliver Geden, “Catalysing a Political Shift from Low to Negative Carbon,” Nature Climate Change 7, 2017, 619–21.
5.IEA, 20 Years of Carbon Capture and Storage.
6.Greenpeace, Carbon Capture Scam CCS: How a False Climate Solution Bolsters Big Oil, Washington, DC: Greenpeace USA, 2015.
7.Cesare Marchetti, “On Geoengineering and the CO2 Problem,” Climatic Change 1, 1977, 59–68.
8.Bryan Maher, “Why Policymakers Should View Carbon Capture and Storage as a Stepping-stone to Carbon Dioxide Removal,” Global Policy 91, 2018, 102–6.
9.Alfonso Martinez Arranz, “Carbon Capture and Storage: Frames and Blind Spots,” Energy Policy 82, 2015, 249–59.
10.IEA, 20 Years of Carbon Capture and Storage.
11.Maher, “Carbon Capture and Storage as a Stepping-stone.”
12.IPCC Working Group III, Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005, 442.
13.Alfonso Martinez Arranz, “Hype among Low-Carbon Technologies: Carbon Capture and Storage in Comparison,” Global Environmental Change 41, 2016, 124–41.
14.NASEM, Negative Emissions Technologies.
15.Mikael Roman, “Carbon Capture and Storage in Developing Countries: A Comparison of Brazil, South Africa and India,” Global Environmental Change 21, 2011, 391–401.
16.Arranz, “Hype among Low-Carbon Technologies.”
17.Karin Bäckstrand et al., “The Politics and Policy of Carbon Capture and Storage: Framing an Emergent Technology,” Global Environmental Change 21, 2011, 275–81.
18.Philip J. Vergragt et al., “Carbon Capture and Storage, Bio-energy with Carbon Capture and Storage, and the Escape from the Fossil-Fuel Lock-in,” Global Environmental Change 21, 2011, 282–92.
19.See, for example, James Gaede and James Meadowcroft, “Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration and Low-Carbon Energy Transitions: Explaining Limited Progress,” in T. Van de Graaf et al., eds., The Palgrave Handbook of the International Political Economy of Energy, London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2016.
20.APS, “Direct Air Capture of CO2 with Chemicals: A Technology Assessment for the APS Panel on Public Affairs,” Washington, DC: American Physical Society, 2011.
21.Jeff Tollefson, “Sucking Carbon Out of the Air Is Cheaper than Scientists Thought,” Nature 558, 2018, 173.
22.The Global CO2 Initative, “Global Roadmap for Implementing CO2 Utilization,” 2016, globalco2initiative.org/opportunity.
23.Jocelyn Timperley, “Q&A: Why Cement Emissions Matter for Climate Change,” Carbon Brief, September 13, 2018, carbonbrief.org.
24.Niall Mac Dowell et al., “The Role of CO2 Capture and Utilization in Mitigating Climate Change,” Nature Climate Change 74, 2017, 243–9.
25.Ibid.
26.Stuart Haszeldine, “Can CCS and NET enable the continued use of fossil carbon fuels after CoP21?” Oxford Review of Economic Policy 32:2, 2016, 304–322.
27.Kathryn Yusoff, “Epochal Aesthetics: Affectual Infrastructures of the Anthropocene,” e-flux, 2017, e-flux.com.
5 Weathering
1.Juerg M. Matter et al., “Rapid Carbon Mineralization for Permanent Disposal of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide Emissions,” Science 352:6291, 2016, 1312–14.
2.Andy Skuce, “‘We’d have to finish one new facility every working day for the next 70 years’: Why Carbon Capture Is No Panacea,” Bulletin of Atomic Sciences, October 4, 2016.
3.Ilsa B. Kantola et al., “Potential of Global Croplands and Bioenergy Crops for Climate Change Mitigation through Deployment for Enhanced Weathering,” Biology Letters 134, 2017.
4.See “Theme 3—Applied Weathering Science,” lc3m.org/research/theme-3/.
5.David J. Beerling, “Enhanced Rock Weathering: Biological Climate Change Mitigation with Co-Benefits for Food Security?,” Biology Letters 134, 2017.
6.Paul Hawken, ed. Drawdown: The Most Comprehensive Plan Ever Proposed to Reverse Global Warming, New York: Penguin Books, 2017.
7.David P. Edwards et al., “Climate Change Mitigation: Potential Benefits and Pitfalls of Enhanced Rock Weathering in Tropical Agriculture,” Biology Letters 134, 2017.
8.Ibid.
9.Kantola et al., “Potential of Global Croplands.”
10.Edwards et al., “Climate Change Mitigation.”
11.Ibid.
12.Henry Fountain, “How Oman’s Rocks Could Help Save the Planet,” New York Times, April 26, 2018, nytimes.com; Evelyn M. Mervine et al., “Potential for Offsetting Diamond Mine Carbon Emissions through Mineral Carbonation of Processed Kimberlite: An Assessment of De Beers Mine Sites in South Africa and Canada,
” Mineralogy and Petrology 112, 2018, 755–65.
13.See “Remineralize the Earth,” remineralize.org.
14.L. L. Taylor et al., “Simulating Carbon Capture by Enhanced Weathering with Croplands: An Overview of Key Processes Highlighting Areas of Future Model Development,” Biology Letters 134, 2017.
15.Ibid.
16.F. J. Meysman and F. Montserrat, “Negative CO2 Emissions via Enhanced Silicate Weathering in Coastal Environments,” Biology Letters 134, 2017.
6 Working
1.Kathi Weeks, The Problem with Work: Feminism, Marxism, Antiwork Politics, and Postwork Imaginaries, Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011, 182.
2.Imre, Szemanand and Maria Whiteman, “Future Politics: An Interview with Kim Stanley Robinson,” Science Fiction Studies 312, 2004.
3.Giorgios Kallis, In Defense of Degrowth: Opinions and Manifestos. Uneven Earth Press, 2018.
4.Ibid., 21.
5.Ibid., 12.
6.Michael Spectre, “The First Geo-vigilante,” New Yorker, October 18, 2012, newyorker.com.
7.Whyte, “Indigeneity in Geoengineering Discourses,” 10.
8.Lave, “The Future of Environmental Expertise.”
9.“Firm to Perform Ocean Experiment,” BBC News, June 21, 2007, news.bbc.co.uk.
10.See Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.
11.See “Regenerative Organic Certified,” regenorganic.org.
12.Neera Singh, “The Affective Labor of Growing Forests and the Becoming of Environmental Subjects: Rethinking Environmentality in Odisha, India,” Geoforum 47, 2013, 189–98.
13.Karen Pinkus, “Carbon Management: A Gift of Time?,” Oxford Literary Review 321, 2010, 51–70.
14.Adam Greenfield, Radical Technologies: The Design of Everyday Life, London and New York: Verso Books, 2017.
15.Ibid., 147.
16.Nori, Nori White Paper. Version 3.0.1, February 19, 2019. Nori.com.
17.Imre Szeman, “Entrepreneurship as the New Common Sense,” South Atlantic Quarterly 114:3, 2015.
18.Katja Grace et al., “When Will AI Exceed Human Performance? Evidence from AI Experts,” Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 62, 2018.
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