The Boy From Pataliputra

by Rahul Mitra

  J

  Jaggery Indians invented the manufacture of cane sugar around 500 BC. Later, they also discovered methods of making crystallized sugar. In fact, the word sugar itself is derived from the Sanskrit word sarkara—it spread around the world with Indian traders, Buddhist monks from other countries, and sailors who carried clarified butter (ghrita or ghee) and sarkara as provisions on their journeys. The word for candy is said to derive from the word khanda (broken in Sanskrit), which sailors used to describe broken, granulated sugar.

  Janapadas Literally meaning the ‘foothold of a people/tribe’ were the earliest states in India. As such, Janapadas had more of a tribal rather than a geographical connotation, as they indicated areas where particular clans or tribes were dominant. These Janapadas could either be kingdoms ruled by a single king, or republics called ganasanghas, where all members of a particular clan held power (in theory). In the ganasangha system, heads of families of a particular clan, or clan chiefs in a confederacy of clans, governed the territory of the clan through an assembly, of which they alone were members. Over time, these Janapadas grew in size, as they swallowed more and more territory to become Mahajanapadas.

  K

  Kaantod pehelwaan This literally translates into ‘broken-eared Wrestler’. Many wrestlers develop cauliflower ears, where the external ears are damaged, or the cartilage is broken and floppy. This readily identifies them as wrestlers, and they are known as Kaantod Pehelwaans.

  Kambojas Kambojas were North West Indian people described as Indo-Aryans, though some commentators have referred to them as having both Indian and Persian affinities. Panini in his Ashtadhyayi mentioned them as one of the fifteen prominent Kshatriya Janapadas in the North West. Throughout ancient Indian literature, they are described as excellent horse trainers and riders, and their land was often referred to, as the land of horses. They were also known throughout India for their martial prowess and were often hired as mercenaries by different kingdoms. Chanakya himself referred to them as martial republics (Varta.shastr.opajivin) and referred to them as excellent sources of military recruitment.

  Alexander during his India campaign, faced furious resistance from the two Kamboja tribes of the Ashvayanas (Greek—Aspasioi of Kunar/Alishang valleys) and Ashvakayanas (Greek—Assakenoi of Swat and Buner), when he faced them in the borderlands of present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. A few chieftains of the Kambojas have also been described as having submitted to Alexander and joined his army. In Greek sources, the following have been mentioned—Sangaeus (Sanjaya) of Pushkalavati, Cophaeus of the Kabul region, and Sicicottos (Shashigupta) from a hill state, south of the Hindu Kush.

  Khadga In ancient India, swords were known as Khadga. They were blunt-tipped, double-edged straight swords, and were wielded using both hands. Typically used in a hacking motion, the Greeks described these swords as at least four-and-a-half-feet long.

  Kapisa Kapisa is a province in present day Afghanistan. It is known as the ‘Gateway to Kabul’. In ancient times, Kapisa and its capital Kapisi, were famous throughout India for the Kapisayana wine grown here.

  Kapisayana wine Kapisayana wine was a variety of wine famous throughout India. It came from the Kapisa province in modern day Afghanistan and has been mentioned by Panini in his writings. The grapes of this area (Kapiśayani Draksha) and wine (Kapiśayani Madhu) of the area are referred to in several works of ancient Indian literature. Interestingly, archaeological discoveries in 1939 confirmed that the city of Kapisa was an emporium for Kapiśayana wine, bringing to light, numerous glass flasks, fish-shaped wine jars, and drinking cups typical of the wine trade of the era.

  Kaushambi Located in present-day Uttar Pradesh, it was a major metropolis of Ancient India. It is situated near the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, and was a thriving river port and an important centre for trade and exchange. In ancient times, its walls extended for a distance of six and a half kilometres and the city was estimated to house a population of thirty-six thousand people, a huge figure for a settlement of that period.

  Kautuhalashala Literally meaning ‘house of curiosity’ these were halls or institutions where public debates were held. In these halls, scholars, mystics, and experts on various subjects argued over the finer points of a particular topic in front of appreciative and learned audiences. It was an established practice during this period for religious and philosophical differences to be argued out, rather than fought over.

  Kos This is a unit of distance that has been used in India since the Vedic times. One kos is approximately equal to two and a quarter miles.

  Kshan This is one of the smallest units of measuring time in ancient India. In modern terms, one Kshan is equal to about four seconds.

  Kullad Handle-less clay cups used for serving beverages. Kullads have been in use in India, since the time of Indus Valley Civilization. They are typically unglazed and allow the beverage to seep into the inner walls of the cup, imparting a characteristic ‘earthy aroma’ that is very appealing.

  L

  Ladvags Ancient name for Ladakh.

  Lochos A lochos was a tactical sub-unit of the Greek army. The term is derived from ancient Greek for ambush and the men carrying out the ambush, but in practice, its meaning was essentially that of ‘war-band’, a body of armed men. It comprised an inconsistent number of men and could be used to refer to anything between eight to sixteen men.

  Lochagos The term lochagos is akin to ‘Captain’, as used by modern armies. In ancient Greece, the lochagos was the head of a lochos.

  M

  Madhushala Madhu, mad or madira (cognate with Indo-European word mead) is a name for alcohol and Madhushala refers to a tavern or an establishment for serving alcohol.

  Magh Magh or Magha is the eleventh month in the traditional Indian calendar and corresponds to January/February in the Gregorian calendar. It is interesting to note that the traditional calendars of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka are based on one of the older versions of the traditional Indian calendar, an influence that spread via Buddhism.

  Mahashvapati A military designation for the head of cavalry in a State’s military.

  Mashaal A hand held torch.

  Maskavati Known as Massaga to the Greeks, this was a strongly held citadel of the Ashvakayanas (Assakenoi of Greek writings) commanding the Katgala pass in modern day Swat, Pakistan.

  Massacre at Maskavati: Even though historians are divided on what exactly happened, this is an incident that has been severely condemned by various writers, both ancient and modern, as a disgraceful breach of faith by Alexander.

  According to some versions, Alexander, after obtaining the surrender of the defenders of Maskavati against promises of safe passage, was compelled to massacre an entire community of mercenaries as they were marching away to join his enemies. Apparently, unwilling to take up arms against their own countrymen, these mercenaries tried to slip away at night, but were pursued by Alexander who caught up with them as they were on the march and massacred every last man, woman, and child of the community.

  Other historians, such as Quintus Curtius Rufus maintain that, “Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also reduced its buildings to rubble”. Indian legends pertaining to Chanakya also point to repeated treachery by the Greeks during this part of their campaign.

  Maunds Maund or man is a traditional Indian measure of weight, which equals about eighty-two pounds. It is not clear if maund as a measure of weight was in use in India around Alexander’s time.

  Meeting between Alexander and Ambhi King Ambhi went up with his army to receive and welcome Alexander at the border of his kingdom, the river Indus. He sent across many gifts to the Greeks on the far bank, including three thousand bulls, ten thousand sheep, many talents of silver and thirty elephants. As the Greeks crossed over, Maharaj Ambhi went over to meet them with his army, leading Alexander to fear a trap and order his men into battle formation. To dispel this impression, Ambhi then rode up with a small cavalry co
ntingent to offer his submission. The two monarchs rested on the banks of the Indus for three days, during which games were held, sacrifices were made, and much feasting took place. Alexander also gave gifts such as a wardrobe of Persian robes, thirty horses, gold and silver jewellery, and one thousand talents of gold (a substantial amount by ancient standards that should prove how dear Ambhi’s help was to the Greeks).

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  Natya Refers to ancient Indian theatre. It is interesting to note that the NatyaShastra (treatise on theatre) written by Bharat Muni between 200 BC and 100 AD, is considered to be the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addressed numerous aspects such as acting, dance, music, dramatic construction, architecture, costuming, make-up, and props.

  Numbers in Alexander’s army The exact numbers are still disputed by historians. Greek and Roman historians, who wrote about Alexander more than a hundred years after his death, uniformly project Alexander as being outnumbered in all his battles, including Hydaspes. However, most modern historians today believe that Alexander’s army would certainly have outnumbered the army of Porus.

  All the research I did on this battle, leads me to believe the same. When thinking about the relative strengths of the two sides at the Battle of the Hydaspes, the following points should be kept in mind:

  •By the time he started on his Indian campaign, Alexander was the undisputed overlord of Greece, Persia, Egypt, and Central Asia, and was leading a vast multinational force into India, while Porus was just a King of one of the many smaller border kingdoms of India.

  •Alexander’s army already numbered about sixty thousand (according to the biography by Robin Lane Fox) by the time he conquered Persepolis. At Ecbatana, he discharged nine thousand Greek troops, but also received six thousand fresh troops from Macedonia as reinforcements. On top of this, after the death of Darius, he raised fresh levies from the Persians, and also added many squadrons of Bactrians, Sogdians, Dahae, and various other Central Asian tribes. As a victorious army, his numbers would only have swelled. Even if we take into account those he had to leave behind to garrison various conquered territories, I still find it hard to believe that the numbers in his army could have fallen below sixty thousand.

  •Also, keep in mind the various Indian allies who joined his armies, including Shasigupta and Ambhi as the major ones. There is nothing in Indian history or legend to indicate that Porus’ kingdom was in any way more powerful than Gandhara, Ambhi’s kingdom. So the forces of Ambhi alone, would have been comparable to those fielded by Porus.

  P

  Pahlavas The Pahlavas are another people mentioned frequently in ancient Indian texts. Here, I have used this word to refer to the Persians in Alexander’s army.

  Pana The basic coins in use during this time were metallic punch-market coins called Karshapana or Pana. The Tamil word for money, ‘Kaasu’, a parallel of the Sanskrit ‘Karsha’, gave rise to the words ‘cash’ in English and ‘caisse’ in French. The Karshapana could apparently be of gold, silver, or copper.

  Pandal A temporary, fabricated structure to receive or seat guests during civil or religious ceremonies. They are usually erected with tarpaulin and cotton cloth, stretched over a framework of bamboo poles.

  Parna This is a word for leaf and refers here to paan, which is consumed for digestive, medicinal, and ritualistic purposes.

  Persepolis (Old-Persian: Pārśapura) was the ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire at the time when it dominated the world. Known to the Greeks as the richest city under the sun, it was built to dominate the surrounding landscape and inspire feelings of majesty and awe in the hearts of subject nations. The entire complex was built on an elevated terrace that arose forty feet above the ground, was a hundred feet wide, and almost a third of a mile long. It contained magnificently carved richly-decorated palaces, imposing reception halls that rose up to a height of sixty feet above the ground, the royal treasury, and various military quarters. It is today, a UNESCO world heritage site, located in a vast and arid plain at a distance of about forty kilometers from the modern Iranian city of Shiraz.

  Persian Immortals were the elite soldiers of the Persian army. Their task was mainly to secure breakthroughs and to enter battles at crucial stages, and as such, can be compared to the special forces of the modern world. They were called the Immortals as they were always maintained at the strength of exactly 10,000 men. Each member who died, or was seriously wounded, was immediately replaced so that the unit itself appeared Immortal to their enemies. They were also featured in the Hollywood movie 300.

  Prahar The term Prahar, later corrupted as Pahar, comes from Sanskrit. It denotes time—one prahar can be said to equal three hours. Thus, a day and a night was divided into eight prahars— four prahars for the day and four prahars of night. Interestingly, the Hindi word for afternoon, do-pahar, derives from this system of classification.

  Prakrit The word Prakrit, which itself is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Prakriti’, can be used to mean natural, artless, normal, or ordinary. Prakrit refers to the vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which were derived from Sanskrit. These languages were seen as more natural, when compared to the literary and religious orthodoxy of Sanskrit.

  Pushkalavati This is in modern-day Charsadda, in the Khyber- Pakhtunwa region of Pakistan. This was an important trading city, located at the confluence of the Swat and Kabul rivers. This was one of the two capitals of the ancient kingdom of Gandhara.

  Pyaau A place where clean, fresh drinking water is served free of cost to everyone. In ancient India, pyaaus were constructed by the government for the welfare of travellers or by individuals or religious institutions, as a way of earning ‘good karma’ and religious merit, as providing water to a thirsty human being is seen as one of the highest acts of charity or virtue.

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  Rakshas Vivaha This is one of the eight different types of vivaha or marriage, as described by Manusmriti. Rakshas Vivaha basically refers to marriage by abduction and this type of Vivaha was resorted to, if the girl was willing, but the family was unwilling. In such cases, the girl could be abducted and married off.

  Rules of war in ancient India Megasthenes, Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya gave a description of the country in his famous book Indika. Here, about the customs of war, he states, “For whereas among other nations it is usual in the contests of war to ravage the soil and thus to reduce it to an uncultivated waste, among the Indians, on the contrary, by whom husbandmen are regarded as a class that is sacred and inviolable, the tillers of the soil, even when battle is raging in their neighbourhood, are undisturbed by any sense of danger; for the combatants on either side, in waging the conflict, make carnage of each other, but allow those engaged in husbandry to remain quite unmolested. Besides, they neither ravage an enemy’s land with fire, nor cut down its trees.”

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  Sarissa Sarissa was a thirteen to fourteen feet long spear used in ancient Greek warfare. It was used in the traditional Macedonian and Greek phalanxes, and was introduced by Philip II of Macedonia— the father of Alexander the Great, who first innovated the tactics for phalanx warfare with these types of spears. Sarissa was made of tough and resilient Cornell wood, and was very heavy for a spear (weighing between five-and-a-half to six-and-a-half kilos). When on the march, it was usually carried in two sections, and was finally screwed together before battle.

  Setthi Derived from sresthin, setthi is an honorific term usually applied to a wealthy merchant, a banker, a foreman of a guild, or a treasurer.

  Shakas Shakas refers to the people known to the west as Scythians. They were spread out over a vast region of Central Asia and later also settled in various parts of India during the Indo-Scythian period.

  Soakage Pit The use of soakage pits or septic tanks have been noted in urban centres in India since the time of the Indus Valley civilization.

  Sword of poor quality manufacture Since the times of Alexander, India has been famous for the quality of its iron
and steel. Wootz steel was popularly used in the manufacture of swords. However, not all swords were of the same quality, and since these processes were not standardized, a lot depended upon the skills of individual craftsmen. Many of the poorer quality swords of ancient eras showed a tendency to bend, snap, chip, or even shatter under the impact of a blow.

  Stirrups The light frame or ring that holds the foot of a rider, and is used to mount or dismount a horse. It is attached to, or hangs down from the saddle, and greatly increases the rider’s ability to stay in the saddle and to control the horse. Stirrups are thought to have been first invented and used in India, in the form of a simple toe-loop made of fibre or leather, into which riders inserted their big toe. This would have greatly increased control, maneuverability, and ability to stay in the saddle, since the riders were barefeet. Carvings featuring riders using elaborate saddles and toe loops have also been found at the Buddhist sites of Sanchi, Mathura, and Bhaja caves, dating from the first to the second century BC.

  Suvarnagiri Located in modern-day Karnataka, it was the provincial capital of the Mauryan Empire, and an important centre for the production of iron and gold.

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  Takshashila This is today’s Taxila in Punjab, Pakistan. Takshashila was one of the capitals of the ancient Gandhara Janapada. Located at the confluence of three major trade routes, Takshashila flourished as a city, and was fought over by different empires over centuries. It was also home to one of the oldest universities in the world, and a pre-eminent centre of learning in ancient India. Takshashila city was located on a hillock that commanded a view of the stream known as the Tamra Nala, a tributary of the Indus. The city was encircled by strong walls that extended upto four thousand and eight hundred meters in length, rising to heights of upto ten meters in places. By the time of Alexander’s invasion, Takshashila had already extended far beyond its walls, reaching till the other side of the Tamra Nala. Remains of a monastery have been found on the other side of the Tamra Nala. The town was strategically located on the Indian ‘royal road’ (Uttarapatha). The residential area was in the east, while the western part of the town seems to have had a ceremonial function. The streets of the city show that they were narrow and the house plans were very irregular. Houses were constructed of rubble masonry, covered with lime or mud plaster. Bricks and timber were also used. Most of the houses had no windows on the outside and instead, opened out towards inner courtyards.