https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000083
[47] Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West: Perspectives: Perspectives of World-History, Vol. II, trans. Charles Francis Atkinson (London: George, Allen & Unwin, 1928), 235.
[48] Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 51.
[49] Vagheesh M. Narasimhan, et al., “The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia,” bioRxiv (preprint) (March 31, 2018).
https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/03/31/292581.full.pdf
[50] Ibid., 374.
[51] Ibid., 376, 387; italics in original.
[52] David Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007; paperback edition, 2010), 161.
[53] Ibid., 137.
[54] Ibid., 155.
[55] Ibid., 201.
[56] Ibid., 221.
[57] Ibid., 221–24.
[58] Ibid., 302.
[59] Ibid., 405.
[60] Ibid., 239; emphasis in text.
[61] Ibid., 364.
[62] Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization, 398.
[63] Ibid.
[64] Hans-Peter Hasenfratz, Barbarian Rites, trans. Michael Moynihan (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2011; original German edition, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Verlag Herder, 1992), 49.
[65] Michael Speidel, “‘Berserks’: A History of Indo-European ‘Mad Warriors,’” Journal of World History 13, no. 2 (1992): 253–90, 253–54.
[66] Hasenfratz, Barbarian Rites, 64–65.
[67] Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language.
[68] Lotte Hedeager, Iron Age Myth and Materiality: An Archaeology of Scandinavia, AD 400–1000 (London: Routledge, 2011).
[69] Ibid., 115–18.
[70] Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, 238.
[71] Ibid., 303
[72] Ibid., 343.
[73] Ibid.
[74] Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization, 438.
[75] Ibid., 379.
[76] Interestingly, Duchesne describes Stalin as a classic despot. Stalin, from Georgia, is said to have had a despotic Oriental personality, surrounding himself with “slavish characters” and continuing to need “choruses of public approval to reinforce his ego.” Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization, 424.
[77] Herodotus, Histories 7, 136.
http://www.bostonleadershipbuilders.com/herodotus/book07.htm
[78] Haak, et al., “Massive Migration from the Steppe Was a Source for Indo-European Languages in Europe.”
[79] Kristian Kristiansen, et al. (“Re-Theorising Mobility and the Formation of Culture and Language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe, Antiquity 9, no. 356 (2017): 334–347.
[80] Haak et al., “Ancient DNA, Strontium isotopes, and osteological analyses shed light on social and kinship organization of the Later Stone Age, Proceedings of the national Academy of Science 105, no. 47 (November 25, 2008): 18226–18231
[81] Ibid., 343.
[82] Anthony, The Horse, the Wheel, and Language, 343.
[83] Roger Pearson, “Some Aspects of Social Mobility in Early Historic Indo-European Societies,” Journal of Indo-European Studies 1 (1973): 155–61.
[84] Ibid., 157.
[85] Western societies have Eskimo kinship, with which emphasizes the nuclear family, identifying directly only the mother, father, brother, and sister. All other relatives are grouped together into categories. It uses both classificatory and descriptive terms, differentiating between gender, generation, lineal relatives (relatives in the direct line of descent), and collateral relatives (blood relatives not in the direct line of descent). The Eskimo system is defined by its “cognatic” or “bilateral” emphasis—no distinction is made between patrilineal and matrilineal relatives. This is compatible with the northern hunter-gatherer contribution to European origins (see Ch. 3). A full-fledged clan-type kinship system is the Sudanese, as seen, e.g., in Chinese kinship.
[86] Hasenfratz, Barbarian Rites, 35.
[87] Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 135.
[88] Hasenfratz, Barbarian Rites, 40.
[89] Bente Magnus, “Dwellings and Settlements: Structure and Characteristics,” in Judith Jesch (ed.), The Scandinavians from the Vendel Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective (Woodbridge, U.K.: Boydel Press, 2002), 5–32.
[90] Ibid., 11.
[91] Ibid.
[92] Hasenfratz, Barbarian Rites, 28–29.
[93] Ibid., 63.
[94] Ibid., 51.
[95] Ibid., 50. Hasenfratz notes in this passage that “markedly degenerated” Männerbünde would sometimes attack isolated farmhouses, raping and pillaging.
[96] Ibid., 55.
[97] Ibid., 56. Hanging was the typical penalty for treason. As a revival of the old practice, hanging was used in the Third Reich for traitors.
[98] David Herlihy, Medieval Households (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 44.
[99] Ibid., 55.
[100] Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization, 399.
[101] Ibid., 417.
[102] Ibid., 418.
[103] Ibid., 484.
[104] Ibid., 438.
[105] Ibid., 452.
[106] Kevin MacDonald, The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2002; orig. pub.: Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), Ch. 6 and passim.
[107] Regarding the Romans, see Appendix to this chapter.
[108] Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War by Prof. Gary Forsythe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 368.
[109] Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City: A Study on the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome (Kitchener, Ontario: Batoche Books, 2001; orig. published in 1862), 166.
https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/fustel/AncientCity.pdf
[110] Ibid., 167.
[111] Susan Lape, Race and Citizen Identity in Classical Athenian Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 59.
[112] Guillaume Durocher, “Ancient Athens: A Spirited and Nativist Democracy,” The Occidental Quarterly 18, no. 3 (Fall, 2018): 73–82, 78.
[113] Guillaume Durocher, “Ancient Sparta: The First Ethnostate?,” The Occidental Quarterly 19, no. 4 (Winter, 2019–2020), in press.
[114] Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization, 465.
[115] Ibid., 483; emphasis in original.
[116] Ibid., 484; see also, on the rise of estates in medieval Europe as giving rise to representative government, Michael Mitterauer, Why Europe? The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path, trans. Gerald Chapple (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010; orig. German edition, 2003).
[117] Américo Castro, The Structure of Spanish History, trans. Edmund L. King (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954), 497; see also Américo Castro, The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History, trans. Willard F. King and Selma Margaretten (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971).
Castro maintained that the Enlightenment could not develop in a Spain fraught with competition between ethnic groups, referring to the conflict between Spaniards and Jews: “From such premises it was impossible that there should be derived any kind of modern state, the sequel, after all, of the Middle Ages’ hierarchic harmony” (The Structure of Spanish History, 497).
[118] The Visigothic Code (Forum judicum), trans. S. P. Scott (Boston, MA: Boston Book Company, 1910; online version: The Library of Iberian Resources Online, unpaginated).
http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/visigoths.htm
[119] Ibid., (Title II, VI).
[120] Kyle J. Bristow, “Our White Common Law,” The Occidental Q
uarterly 15, no. 1 (Spring 2015): 63–68.
[121] Patrick J. Geary, The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002).
[122] Peter Heather, The Goths (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).
[123] Frederick Barth, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 1998).
[124] Heather, The Goths, 4.
[125] Ibid., 26.
[126] Ibid., 45.
[127] Ibid., 49.
[128] Ibid., 57.
[129] Ibid., 65.
[130] Ibid., 66.
[131] Ibid., 68.
[132] Ibid., 73.
[133] Ibid., 76. These groups were very warlike. He notes the trouble leaders had in controlling their followers’ “martial enthusiasm.”
[134] Heather, The Goths, 75.
[135] Ibid., 75. This is apparent in the Visigothic Code, as mentioned above.
[136] Ibid., 88.
[137] Ibid., 88.
[138] Ibid., 273.
[139] Ibid., 294.
[140] Ibid., 285. Notice the quotation marks around “Franks,” implying that the ethnic component had dissipated.
[141] Ibid., 90. On the other hand, Roman policy was to break up conquered peoples and distribute them widely within the Empire to dilute ethnic bonds.
[142] Ibid., 169.
[143] Ibid., 171–72.
[144] Ibid., 175.
[145] Ibid., 178.
[146] Ibid., 221.
[147] Ibid., 297.
[148] Ibid., 239.
[149] Ibid., 243–44. Heather describes Wittigus and Theudis as “senior members of the two clans that dominated the throne after the Amal dynasty had been ousted” (ibid., 247). Medieval historians have found that succession tends to be an issue if there is no adult son ready to take over (ibid., 253).
[150] Ibid., 257.
[151] Sandra Wilde, et al., “Direct Evidence for Positive Selection of Skin, Hair, and Eye Pigmentation in Europeans during the Last 5,000 Y,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 111, no. 13 (April 1, 2014): 4832–4837, 4835.
[152] Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War by Prof. Gary Forsythe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).
[153] Ibid., 199.
[154] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 200.
[155] Ibid., 216.
[156] Ibid.
[157] Ibid., 307.
[158] Ibid., 340.
[159] Ibid., 286.
[160] Ibid., 286–287.
[161] Fiery Cushman, “Rationalization Is Rational,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, in press.
[162] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 281.
[163] Ibid., 353.
[164] Larry Siedentop, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 14.
[165] Ibid., 12.
[166] Ibid., 13.
[167] Ibid., 20.
[168] Ibid., 21.
[169] Ibid., 25.
[170] Ibid., 52.
[171] Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization (Leiden: Brill, 2011), passim; see also Ch. 2.
[172] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 167.
[173] Ibid., 167.
[174] Ibid., 169.
[175] Ibid., 98.
[176] Ibid., 102–103.
[177] Ibid., 103.
[178] Ibid., 106.
[179] Ricardo Duchesne, The Uniqueness of Western Civilization (Leiden: Brill, 2011).
[180] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 110.
[181] Ibid., 150.
[182] Ibid., 229. Marriage by confarreatio was an exception: it was confined to patrician hereditary priests and was interpreted to mean that priests could not marry plebeians.
[183] Ibid., 111.
[184] Ibid., 170.
[185] Ibid., 171.
[186] Ibid., 170
[187] Ibid., 171.
[188] Ibid.
[189] Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 14.
[190] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 156–157.
[191] Ibid., 160.
[192] Ibid., 159.
[193] Ibid., 185.
[194] Ibid., 290.
[195] The tribal assemblies (comitia tributa) were established on the basis of geographical residence as recorded by the censor. They elected the plebeian tribunes who could enact legislation and adjudicate non-capital litigation. They also had the power to veto the actions of the senate and other magistrates, including the consuls; however, this power was rarely used until the late Republic. Ibid., 176.
[196] Ibid., 368.
[197] Ibid., 220.
[198] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 363.
[199] Ibid., 368.
[200] Ibid.
[201] Tenney Frank, “Race Mixture in the Roman Empire,” American Historical Review 21, no. 4 (July 1916): 689–708) (reprinted in The Occidental Quarterly 5, no. 4 (Winter, 2005–2006): 51–68, 52.
https://www.toqonline.com/archives/v5n4/54-Frank.pdf
[202] Ibid., 63.
[203] Ibid., 64.
[204] Ibid., 65.
[205] John M. Viola, “Tearing Down Statues of Columbus Also Tears Down My History,” The New York Times (October 9, 2017).
[206] Frank, “Race Mixture in the Roman Empire,” 67.
[207] Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome, 308.
[208] Christopher H. Boehm, Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999).
[209] Ibid., 8.
[210] Fritz Lenz, “The Inheritance of Intellectual Gifts,” in Erwin Baur, Eugen Fischer, and Fritz Lenz, Human Heredity, trans. Eden Paul and Cedar Paul (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 657.
[211] Antoine Coutrot, et al., “Global Determinants of Navigation Ability,” Current Biology 28 (September, 2018): 2861–2866.
[212] T. R. E. Southwood, “Habitat, the Temple for Ecological Strategies?” Journal of Animal Ecology 46 (1977): 337–366; T. R. E. Southwood, “Bionomic Strategies and Population Parameters,” in Robert M. May (ed.), Theoretical Ecology: Principles and Applications (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1981): 26–48.
[213] Michael L. Burton, Carmella C. Moore, John W. M. Whiting, and A. Kimball Romney, “Regions Based on Social Structure,” Current Anthropology 37 (1996): 87–123.
[214] Wil Roebroeks, “Hominid Behaviour and the Earliest Occupation of Europe: An exploration,” Journal of Human Evolution 41 (2001): 437–461.
[215] Ibid., 450.
[216] G. C. Frison, “Paleoindian Large Mammal Hunters of the Plains of North America,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 95 (1998):14575–14583.
[217] T. Douglas Price, “The Mesolithic of Northern Europe,” Annual Review of Anthropology 20 (1991): 211–233, 229.
[218] Lawrence H. Keeley, “Frontier Warfare in the Early Neolithic, in D. L. Martin and Paul Dolukhanoy (eds.), Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1997): 303–319.
[219] Marek Zvelebil and Paul Dolukhanov, “The Transition to Farming in Eastern and Northern Europe. Journal of World Prehistory 5 (1991): 233–278, 262–263.
[220] Sveinung Bang-Andersen, “Coast/Inland Relations in the Mesolithic of Southern Norway,” World Archaeology 27 (1996): 427–443, 436, 437; emphasis in original.
[221] Jeanne Arnold et al., “Entrenched Disbelief: Complex H-gs and the Case for Inclusive Cultural Evolutionary Thinking,” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 23 (2016): 448–499.
[222] Ibid.
[223] Ibid., 489.
Individualism and the Western Liberal Tradition Page 43