Daoist Identity
Page 33
While most signs here are specified according to execution with the right or left hand, there are yet a number that can be done with either or both hands.
In each case, the text specifies the fingers to be used and the positions they take. Typically, one forms a sign by exerting thumb pressure on one or more joints of the other fingers, as, for example, in the case of the Seven Dippers, or again that of the seven stars of the Northern
TABLE 11.3
HAND SIGNS IN THE ZHUGUO BIYAO (CH. 8) 1. Left-Hand Signs
Expelling Disease
Binding Demons
All Heavens
White Tiger
Dharma Master
Green Dragon
*Jade Clarity
Guiding Souls
*Highest Clarity
*Persecuting Demons
*Great Clarity
Establishing the Sword
*Northern Emperor
Liberating the Dragon
Celestial Master
*Original Master
3. Signs for Flying to the Five Dippers
*Purple Tenuity
*Sun Lord
Southern Dipper (L)
*Moon Lord
Northern Dipper (L)
Hall of Light
Western Dipper (L)
*Dipper Bowl
Eastern Dipper (R)
*Heavenly Ding Gods
Central Dipper, yang (L)
Heavenly Jia Gods
Central Dipper, yin (R)
*Five Thunders
Thunder Fire, yang day (L)
Ding and Jia Gods
Thunder Fire, yin day (R)
*General Overseer
*Transforming Spirit
4. Signs for the Seven Stars of the Dipper (L)
*Exorcising Evil
Meritorious Officials
Gui Star, press second segment of index finger
Containing Pestilence
Gou Star, press first segment of index finger
*Dipper
Fan Star, press first segment of middle finger
Punishing Demons
Shou Star, press third segment of middle finger
Forestalling Demons
Bi Star, press second segment of ring finger
*Golden Knife
Pu Star, press second segment of little finger
Raising Troops
Piao Star, press third segment of little finger
Four Mountains
*Sun Constellation
5. Signs for Controlling the Five Phases
Chasing Demons
Golden Ding Gods
Wood (L)
*Opening Seal
Fire (L)
*Entering Seal
Earth (L)
Pushing Demons into the
Metal (R)
Underworld
Water (L)
Golden City
Demon Knife (L)
Expelling Strange Phenomena
Twisting Dragon (L)
Expelling Locusts
Earth Center (L)
Riding on Clouds
Central Earth Knife (L)
Killing Demons
Demon Killing Knife (L)
Destroying Knife (L)
2. Right-Hand Signs
Evil Killing Knife (L)
Destroying Five Bad Rebirths Knife (L)
Entering Sanctuary
Killing Demons (L)
Destroying Sanctuary
Summoning Star Gods (L)
*same as in Tianxin zhengfa
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Dipper (see table 11.3, section 3; also figure 11.2). Unlike the late-Tang Xuanpu shan bilu, in which hand signs were static and strictly symbolized certain deities, concepts, or objects, the Song materials have a wide variety of signs that are executed with thumb pressure or hand movements and work more according to specific functions than symbolism. A clear development can thus be discerned between the Tang and the Song, a movement away from mudra-inspired, static symbols and toward more indigenously Daoist hand movements and cosmic functions.
The Origins of Daoist Finger Techniques
Using hands and fingers in a sacred or ritual context can first be linked with the ancient techniques of shamanism, which also involved dances, chants, and other practices later adapted into the methods of the fangshi, or magical practitioners, and through them into Daoism. An early text documenting the use of hand signs among the fangshi is Ge Hong’s (283–341) Baopuzi (Book of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity, HY
1177), a key work on the understanding and practice of alchemy and early ritual methods. Here we have
Figure 11.2. The position
of the seven stars of the
Dipper in the fingers.
(Source: Zhuguo biyao
8.16a.)
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[Upon entering the mountain] if you happen to see a poisonous snake, face the sun and, taking three mouthfuls of breaths from the left, confine it. Press your tongue against the roof of your mouth and place a hand upon your Central Barrier point. Next, close the Gate of Heaven and shut the Door of Earth [nose and mouth] and press something against the snake’s head while making a circle about it with your hand, drawing a prison on the earth to confine it. You may also take it up and play with it. Even if you place it around your neck, it will not dare bite you. As an automatically unremovable charm, blow upon the snake with your exhalations, and it will never again leave the prison you made.
When others have been bitten by a snake, take three mouthfuls of breath from the left and blow upon the wound; it will immediately get better and cause no more pain. If you and the patient are separated by a dozen or so miles, you may do the breath procedure from a distance and shout the name of the patient. For a male, the spell is to be said over your left hand; for a female, over your right. (17.8a; Ware 1966, 290)
Clearly, in the early stages of Daoism, hand signs were used in conjunction with spells, or incantations, and talismans to afford protection and exorcise evil. What exactly practitioners did with their hands, however, is not described in the text. Still, the protective and exorcistic spells mentioned in the Baopuzi again appear in the early Tang, when Sun Simiao (601–693) cites a text called Jinjing (Scripture of Prohibitions) in his Qianjin yifang (Additional Medicines Worth a Thousand Pieces of Gold, chs. 29, 30; see Liu 1984; Sakade 1989). Here, in addition, more than twenty palm signs are given, among them several that involve pressing the thumb against one or the other finger.
A different variation of the same idea is also described in the Sandong zhunang (A Bag of Pearls from the Three Caverns, HY 1131), an encyclopedia of Daoist materials compiled by Wang Xuanhe in the mid-seventh century (see Reiter 1990). It has
The Taiyi dijun dongzhen xuanjing (Mysterious Scripture of Perfection Cavern of the Imperial Lord of Great Unity) says: Close your eyes, clap your teeth five times, and take the middle finger of your left hand to press seven times against the nostril. Then take your right index finger and press nine times against the area between your eyebrows. This will expel all malicious influences of the three, five, seven, and nine as well as close the gates against the multitude of spirits. (3.18a) Once done with the finger pointing, clap your teeth three times again and, in a soft voice, recite the following spell:
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The luminants above fly through the net,
May vermilion and yellow spread their haze,
May their energy surround all the numinous and nasty
And let their corpses rot in depth and darkness.
Harmonize my spirit souls, purify my material souls,
Let me join my body with the Great Spirit above!
Cause me to live forever and not die,
Remain whole for myriads of years!
May I be bright and perceptive, of penetrating vision,
Forever joyful, beneficent and exuberant.
Having concluded the recitation, clap your teeth three times again, then swallow the saliva three times and with your right index finger press below the left eye seven times. This will allow all yin energy to be completely at rest—at least while you don’t raise your hand too high.
(5.6ab)
Here exorcistic and life-preserving effects are gained by applying finger pressure to certain key points of Daoist anatomy, notably the gate of energy at the entrance of the nostrils and the “Hall of Light”
( mingtang ) point between the eyebrows. The idea is very similar to that found in the later practice of hand signs in which, too, certain positions in the fingers have cosmological significance and the application of pressure is used to activate protective or exorcistic powers.
Another relevant passage on the same issue is found in the Daodian lun (On the Classics of the Dao, HY 1122), another early-Tang encyclopedia by an unknown author, which has also partly survived in Dunhuang manuscripts (see Ren and Zhong 1991, 879–880). It has The Ciyi jing (Scripture of the Female One) says: The Perfect Lord of Great Simplicity has an efficient technique to avoid nightmares, especially useful to beginners. It goes as follows.
Whenever you have a series of nightmares, understand that they are either caused by soul sprites, serve as tests for your heart/mind, or are attempts to snatch your corpse. In all cases, you need to apply the following technique for the dissolution of bad influences. As soon as you wake up, take your left hand and press your nostril area twice times seven, then clap your teeth twice times seven and chant the following incantation. . . . (4.4b)
Again, the main purpose of the finger technique is exorcistic, and it involves other ritual and purificatory activities, such as clapping the teeth, swallowing the saliva, and reciting an incantation. Closely related to other forms of purification, exorcism, and ritual acts of protection,
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hand and finger methods like these served to ensure safety for the whole person and were later integrated into a more extensive ritual context. Combined with spells and talismans, Daoist hand signs engaged the good spirits of the otherworld and banished the bad. Originating in finger techniques that activated certain cosmic points in the body, they are deeply rooted in ancient indigenous practice and only secondarily evolved into their formal patterning under the influence of Buddhist mudras. This development is evident first in the Xuanpu shan bilu, or about two hundred years after the Sandong zhunang and Daodian lun. Here the term “hand seal,” or “mudra,” first occurs in a Daoist context; here also the techniques of thumb pressure against certain fingers are described for the first time; and here we have the first mention of specific names of hand signs—all inspired by the Buddhist model and adapted actively into an already well-prepared Daoist environment.
Sacred Hand Movements
Besides hand positions that indicate certain symbolic patterns and are used in ritual contexts, there are also various sets of sometimes complex hand movements, usually undertaken while facing a specific direction and accompanied by an incantation. For example, the Shangqing lingbao dafa (Great Rites of the Highest Clarity and Numinous Treasure Traditions, HY 1211), by Wang Qizhen (Boltz 1987, 43–44) of the late twelfth century, lists five sacred sounds to be uttered seven times each in the different directions when entering a ritual chamber and burning incense in preparation for ritual. They are
ling—north-northeast, press the chou pattern mo —east-northeast, press the yin pattern lü—east, press the mao pattern
tao —east-southeast, press the chen pattern ni—south-southeast, press the si pattern (7.10b) With each utterance, the hand should move in the direction indicated. More specifically, as described in the section “Hand Pattern of the Golden Wheel to Control Demons,”
When moving from west to east, the hand needs to form the pattern shown below [see figure 11.3]. ( Shangqing lingbao dafa 7.11a) Then again, the Duren shangjing dafa (Great Methods of the Highest Scripture of Universal Salvation, HY 219) has this spell:
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“gold”—west, press the you pattern
“wheel”—east, press the mao pattern
“control”—west, press the you pattern
“demons”—east, press the mao pattern
“pattern”—west, press the you pattern (40.16b)
This links the efficacious formulation with the ritual position, showing which direction the hand movements are supposed to follow.
The hand movements, moreover, are linked with the specific direc-tional and zodiac positions marked on the fingers (see figure 11.4).
The purpose of the integration of rituals, chanting, and finger positions is to purify the entire body in all its cosmic positions and directions and to make sure that the good energy stays within the body and circulates correctly.
Another set of hand signs that involve movements is found in the Zhuguo biyao, especially in relation to methods of flying to the five Dippers. Many signs associated with these constellations are used to help Figure 11.3. The “Golden Wheel
Figure 11.4. Zodiac
to Control Demons.” The char-
positions as marked
acter for “gold” is on the pinkie;
in the fingers. (Source:
that for “wheel” is on the index
Duren shangjing dafa
finger. (Source: Shangqing
40.16b.)
lingbao dafa 7.11a.)
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in healing diseases and exorcise demons. They are activated by first mentally chanting the names of the Dipper gods, praying for their protection during the ecstatic ascent to their palaces, and then pressing certain spots in the fingers with the thumb. The text says: Press your fingers following the enclosed illustration, clap your teeth three times, envision the Dipper, and hold your breath. Then silently recite the names of the stars and fly off to meet them. (8.13ab) The text does not specify how exactly the combination of visualization, chanting, and hand movements is supposed to work. However, it makes it clear that hand signs are ultimately connected to the protection of the body.
A similar description of the same method, with a list more attentive to meditative details, is found in the Daofa huiyuan. Here, in the section “Jade Master’s Precious Way to Catch Evil Spirits,” certain points on the fingers are identified with the eight trigrams and twelve zodiac positions. Practitioners move their hands in a particular way while chanting spells and practicing visualizations. For example, to fly to the Southern Dipper, they activate each star in turn: For the Chi Star, visualize cinnabar fire and execute the si [SSE]
pattern
For the Zhi Star, visualize yellow fire and execute the chen [ESE]
pattern
For the Huo Star, visualize red fire and execute the li [S] pattern For the Fu Star, visualize purple fire and execute the wu [S] pattern For the Zun Star, visualize dark fire and execute the kun [SW]
pattern
For the Sheng Star, visualize golden fire and execute the wei [WSW]
pattern (198.16b–17a)
Again, the exact meditation is not completely spelled out, but the hand patterns are more specific than those mentioned in the Zhuguo biyao. Another section, also of the Daofa huiyuan, entitled “Jade Master’s Spreading the Net to Catch Malicious Influences,” has instructions on how to activate the finger positions of the eight trigrams and twelve zodiac constellations in order to summon the thirteen thunder gods. They are as follows:
Heavenly Thunder: Tianlei yinyin, press the hai pattern (NNW) Spirit Thunder: Shenlei honghong, press the wu pattern (SSE) Dragon Thunder: Longlei juanshui, press the chen pattern (ESE) Water Thunder: Shuilei pofan, press the zi pattern (N)
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Fig. 11.5. The position of the thirteen thunders on the fingers together with their names and description. (Source: Daofa huiyuan 1
98.13a.)
Fire Thunder: Sheling leihuo, press the yin pattern (ENE) Clapping Thunder: Pili, jiaoheng, press the xuan pattern (SE) Spirit Pivot: Shenji yibian, press the yin pattern (ENE) Swift Destruction: Sumie xiejing, press the daji pattern (center) Great Thunder: Leida, press the mao pattern (E) Second Thunder: Lei’er, press the yin pattern (ENE) Third Thunder: Leisan, press the chou pattern (NNE) Fourth Thunder: Leisi, press the zi pattern (N) Fifth Thunder: Leiwu, press the hai pattern (NNW) (198.13b–14a; see figure 11.5)
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Another set of thunder-related hand signs, also found in the Daofa huiyuan, is used specifically to expel demons, cure diseases, and pray for rain. They are cited from the Shenxiao zishu dafa (Great Methods of the Purple Book of Divine Empyrean, HY 1209). Here we have The Five Thunder Signs:
Heavenly Thunder: in both hands, press yin, while the little finger remains on jia
Spirit Thunder: index and middle fingers are bent, while the thumb presses on zi and the ring and little fingers press on the thumb Dragon Thunder: index, middle, and ring fingers are bent, while the thumb is curved over them and holds the position hai; the little fingers pushes on the others, with the thumb in jia
Water Thunder: the index finger is bent, while the thumb presses on chou and the remaining fingers press on the thumb Magic Thunder: index, middle, and ring fingers are bent, while the thumb presses on them without yet locking on jia (11.10ab) These five hand signs do not involve finger movements but represent a combination of mudras and finger-pressure techniques. This is also evident from another passage on thunder rites found in the same text. It says:
Fig. 11.6. Hand signs to support cosmic order on the levels of heaven, earth, and humanity. (Source: Daofa huiyuan 106.17b–23a.)
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Press the position chen with your left hand and take in the energy of the trigram xun while facing its matching direction. . . . Then press the position zi, again facing the direction of xuan and ingesting its energy.
(4.1a)
To support and maintain cosmic order, yet another set of talismans and hand signs is applied, among them specifically those used to “order the heavenly government” ( zhi tianzheng), to “straighten the earthly mainstays” ( li diji ), and to “rectify human affairs” ( zheng renshi). Where to press in each case is evident from the accompanying illustration (see figure 11.6). Patterns activated here are easily connected with those hand signs that involve movements; they are variously described in ritual Daoist texts found in the canon, first the Zhuguo biyao and many more in the Ming and Qing.