El Norte

by Carrie Gibson

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  Notes

  Author’s Note

  1“Walt Whitman to the Tertio-Millennial Anniversary Association,” Santa Fe, New Mexico, July 20, 1883, in Ted Genoways (ed.), The Correspondence (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2004). Available at Walt Whitman Archive, http://whitmanarchive.org/biography/correspondence/tei/med.00660.html (accessed November 7, 2016).

  Introduction: Nogales, Arizona

  1Rachel St. John, Line in the Sand: A History of the Western U.S.-Mexico Border (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 95.

  2Juan Poblete, “Americanism/o: Intercultural Border Zones in Postsocial Times,” in Marisa Belausteguigoitia, Ben. Sifuentes-Jáuregui, and Yolanda Martínez-San Miguel (eds.), Critical Terms in Caribbean and Latin American Thought: Historical and Institutional Trajectories (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), p. 47.

  3Octavio Paz, “Mexico and the United States,” in Rachel Philips Belash, Yara Milos, and Lysander Kemp (trans.), The Labyrinth of Solitude and Other Writings (New York: Grove Press, 1985), p. 357.

  4Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Aunt Lute Books, 2012), p. 25.

  5José Luis Abellán, La idea de América: Origen y evolución (Madrid: Iberoamericana, 2009), p. 25.

  6Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Our America: A Hispanic History of the United States (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014), Kindle Edition, p. 330.

  7G. Cristina Mora, Making Hispanics: How Activists, Bureaucrats, and Media Constructed a New American (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), p. 169.

  8Jens Manuel Krogstad and Mark Hugo Lopez, “Use of Spanish Declines Among Latinos in Major U.S. Metros,” Pew Research Center FactTank, October 31, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/10/31/use-of-spanish-declines-among-latinos-in-major-u-s-metros/ (accessed March 22, 2018).

  9Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), p. xxiii.

  10On the development of race and social control, see, for instance, Patrick Wolfe, “Land, Labor, and Difference: Elementary Structures of Race,” American Historical Review 106, no. 3 (2001): 866–905.

  11Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), loc. 88, Kindle.

  12Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States (London: Routledge, 2014), pp. 105–11.

  13On Mexico, see, for instance, Mónica G. Moreno Figueroa and Emiko Saldívar Tanaka, “Comics, Dolls and the Disavowal of Racism: Learning from Mexican Mestizaje,” in Encarnación Gutiérrez Rodríguez and Shirley Anne Tate (eds.), Creolizing Europe: Legacies and Transformations (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2015); on the Dominican Republic, see David John Howard, Coloring the Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the Dominican Republic (Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner, 2001).

  14Richard Rodriguez, Brown: The Last Discovery of America (New York: Penguin, 2002), pp. xi–xii.

  15Alan Gallay, The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 9.

  16George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–45 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 1.

  17Carey McWilliams and Matt S. Meier (ed.), North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York: Praeger, 1990), p. 8.

  18Mae N. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 2.

  19Quoted in Simon Schama, The American Future: A History (New York: Ecco, 2009), p. 240.

  20Gordon S. Wood, The Purpose of the Past: Reflections on the Uses of History (New York: Penguin, 2009), p. 244.

  21Quoted in Schama, The American Future, p. 242. For more on the creation and imagining of national identity, see the classic Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso Books, 1991).

  22J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, Letters from an American Farmer and Sketches of Eighteenth-Century America (New York: Penguin Classics, 1981), pp. 68, 70.

  23Eliga Gould, “Entangled Histories, Entangled Worlds: The English-Speaking Atlantic as a Spanish Periphery,” American Historical Review 112, no. 3 (2007): 764-786.

  24For more on Columbus and the early settlement of the Caribbean, with references and suggestions for further reading, see the first two chapters of Carrie Gibson, Empire’s Crossroads: A History of the Caribbean from Columbus to the Present Day (New York: Grove Press, 2014).

  25Patricia Seed, “Exploration and Conquest,” in Thomas H. Holloway (ed.), A Companion to Latin American History (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), pp. 73–74.

  26Edwin Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America (London: Penguin, 1992), pp. 80–81.

  27Quoted in David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America: The Brief Edition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 21.

  28“Inter Caetera, 1493,” in J. H. Parry and Robert G. Keith (eds.), New Iberian World: A Documentary History of the Discovery and Settlement of Latin America to the Early 17th Century, vol. 1 (New York: Times Books: Hector & Rose, 1984), pp. 272–73.

  29Colin M. MacLachlan, Imperialism and the Origins of Mexican Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), p. 181.

  30Columbus had a long-standing relationship with the Franciscans. See Julia McClure, The Franciscan Invention of the New World (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 96–97.

  31On this theme, see, for instance, M. J. Rodríguez-Salgado, “Christians, Civilised and Spanish: Multiple Identities in Sixteenth-Century Spain,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 8 (1998): 233–51.

  32John Huxtable Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2006), p. 9.

  33Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Amerigo: The Man Who Gave His Name to America (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), p. 120.

  34Apparently, Martin Waldseemüller later changed his mind about Amerigo Vespucci and stopped putting his name on maps, but by then the use of “America” had taken root. Ibid., pp. 187–91; C. R. Johnson, “Renaissance German Cosmographers and the Naming of America,” Past & Present 191, no. 1 (2006): 3–45.

  Chapter 1: Santa Elena, South Carolina

  1Robert S. Weddle, Spanish Sea: The Gulf of Mexico in North American Discovery, 1500–1685 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1985), p. 40.

  2Fernando Picó, History of Puerto Rico: A Panorama of Its People (Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener, 2006), pp. 36–37.

  3Ibid.

  4John E. Worth (ed.), Discovering Florida: First Contact Narratives from Spanish Expeditions Along the Lower Gulf Coast (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014), p. 8.

  5Picó, History of Puerto Rico, p. 38.

  6Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 9; Margaret F. Pickett and Dwayne W. Pickett, The European Struggle to Settle North America: Colonizing Attempts by England, France and Spain, 1521–1608 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2011), p. 17.

  7Jerald T. Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord: Spanish Missions and Southeastern Indians (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2006), p. 59.

  8Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 16; Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 55.

  9Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 14.

  10Jerald T. Milanich, “Charting Juan Ponce de León’s 1513 Voyage to Florida: The Calusa Indians amid Latitude of Controversy,” in Viviana Díaz Balsera and Rachel May
(eds.), La Florida: Five Hundred Years of Hispanic Presence (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2014), p. 54. See this chapter for a detailed discussion of Ponce’s possible landing sites.

  11Milanich, Laboring in the Fields of the Lord, p. 57.

  12Worth, Discovering Florida, p. 17.

  13T. D. Allman, Finding Florida: The True History of the Sunshine State (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2013), p. 7.

  14There is some uncertainty about whether Cortés left in 1504 or 1506, with more recent works coming down on the side of the later date. See Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 7; Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), p. 117; Anthony Pagden (ed.), Hernan Cortes: Letters from Mexico (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986), p. xiv.

  15He may have also named the island Juana in honor of Prince John (Juan), but it remains unclear. For more on Columbus’s names for the islands, see Evelina Gužauskytė, Christopher Columbus’s Naming in the Diarios of the Four Voyages (1492–1504): A Discourse of Negotiation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014).

  16John Frederick Schwaller and Helen Nader, The First Letter from New Spain: The Lost Petition of Cortés and His Company, June 20, 1519 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014), p. 13; Thomas, Conquest, pp. 76, 133–34.

  17An online version of these laws can be found at http://faculty.smu.edu/bakewell/bakewell/texts/burgoslaws.html.

  18Anthony Pagden, “Introduction,” in Bartolomé de Las Casas and Nigel Griffin (trans.), A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (London: Penguin, 1992), xxxv.

  19Ross Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” in William H. Beezley and Michael C. Meyer (eds.), The Oxford History of Mexico (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 74, Kindle.

  20Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, pp. 16–17.

  21Schwaller and Nader, The First Letter from New Spain, p. 13.

  22Seed, “Exploration and Conquest,” p. 77.

  23Williamson, The Penguin History of Latin America, p. 17; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, p. 58; Hassig, “The Collision of Two Worlds,” p. 75; Camilla Townsend, Malintzin’s Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006), p. 37.