Space Race

by Deborah Cadbury

  Brooks, Courtney G., Chariots for Apollo, NASA SP-4205. Washington, DC: NASA, 1979

  Burrows, William E., This New Ocean. New York: Random House, 1998

  Golovanov’s archive: Alexei Leonov compiled interviews to Russian newspapers

  Irwin, James B., Destination Moon. Portland, Oregon: Multnomah, 1989

  Khrushchev, Sergei, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower. Philadelphia, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000

  Lovell, James, Lost Moon. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1994

  Michel, Jean, Dora. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979

  Mishin, Vasily, Ot sozdania ballisticheskikh raket k raketno-kosmicheskomu mashinostrojeniyu (From the Development of Ballistic Rockets to Space-rocket Building). Moscow: Informatsionno-Izdatelsky Tsentr Znanie, 1998

  —, ‘Pochemu my ne sletali na lunu’ (‘Why We Never Flew to the Moon’) (an article in Znaniye: Seriya kosmnautika, astronomiya no.12, December 1990)

  Murray, Charles, and Cox, Catherine Bly, Apollo: The Race to the Moon. London: Secker & Warburg, 1989

  Pervushin, Anton, Bitva za zvezdy. Moscow: AST, 2003

  Piszkiewicz, Dennis, The Nazi Rocketeers: Dreams of Space and Crimes of War. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1995

  Rakhmanin, V. F. (ed.) Odnazhdy i navsegda: Dokumenty i lyudi o sozdatele raketnykh dvigateley i kosmicheskikh system akademike Valentine Petroviche Glushko (Once and Forever: Documents and People involved in the Creation of Rocket Engines and Space Systems of Academician Valentin Petrovich Glushko). Moscow: Mashinostroyennie, 1998

  Rauschenbakh, B. V. (ed.), S. P. Korolev i ego delo: svet i teni v istorii kosmonavtiki. izbrannye trudy i dokumenty (S. P. Korolev and his Work: Light and Shadows from the History of Space Research), compiled by G. S. Vetrov. Moscow: Nauka, 1998

  Rebrov, Mikhail, ‘The Last Argument: A Study of the Designer in Black and White’. Krasnaya zvezda newspaper, 1995

  —, Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, Zhizn i neobyknovennaia sudba (Sergei Pavlovich Korolev: His Life and Extraordinary Fate). Moscow: Olma-Press, 2000

  Scott, David, and Leonov, Alexei, Two Sides of the Moon. London: Simon & Schuster, 2004

  Siddiqi, Asif, The Soviet Space Race with Apollo. Gainsville, Fla.: University Press of Florida, 2003

  Slayton Donald K., Deke! New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 1994

  Young, John W., America, Russia and the Cold War. New York: Longman, 1993

  RUSSIAN ARCHIVES

  Original exclusive sources:

  Private archive of Yaroslav Golovanov, Korolev’s main biographer, including unpublished letters and private documents of S. P. Korolev

  Notebooks of Yaroslav Golovanov, including unpublished interviews, love letters and the only complete transcript of the KGB file of S. P. Korolev

  Original Transcript of Gagarin’s flight, never published in its entirety, held at RGANTD, (Russian State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documentation)

  Diary of Mikhail Tikhonravov, held privately

  Archive of Ketovania Ivanovna S., lover of S. P. Korolev, held at the Academy of Sciences, Moscow

  Vasily Mishin Papers, held privately

  Letters of S. P. Korolev (limited access), held at the Korolev House Museum, Moscow

  US ARCHIVES

  Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base: The Story of Peenemünde, or What Might Have Been: Peenemünde East Through the Eyes of 500 Detained at Garmisch; microfilm A: 5734

  Library of Congress: von Braun’s scrapbooks, speeches, correspondence

  National Air and Space Museum: oral history interviews with German scientists

  NARA (National Archives and Records Administration), Washington, DC: records of the Army Guided Missile Group; records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense; intelligence records on von Braun; FBI files on von Braun

  US Space and Rocket Center: oral history interviews with German scientists and US Ordnance officers

  BBC PRODUCTION INTERVIEWS

  Boris Chertok, Moscow, March 2004; Oleg Gazenko, Moscow, March 2004; Yuri Glushko (son of Valentin Glushko), Moscow, March 2004; Oleg Ivanovsky, Moscow, April 2004; Konstantin Feoktistov, Moscow, April 2004; Natalya Koroleva (daughter of S. P. Korolev), Moscow, December 2003, January and April 2004; Tamara Titova (widow of Gherman Titov), Moscow, April 2004; Viacheslav Rakhmanin (Valentin Glushko’s biographer) Moscow, March 2004; Cosmonaut Pavel Popovich, Moscow, December 2003; Cosmonaut/ Engineer Georgy Grechko, Moscow, December 2003; Engineer Sergei Kryukov, Moscow, December 2003; Engineer Valentin Syromyatnikov, Moscow, December 2003; Nina and Vera Mishin, Moscow, March 2004; Ursula Gröttrup, Hamburg, February 2004

  Svetlana Palmer interviews with Gherman Titov, Khionia Kraskina and Boris Chertok, 1997

  Channel One Moscow interview with Vasily Mishin, 1999

  PERIODICALS AND NEWSPAPER ARTICLES

  New York Times Magazine, an anthology of articles, 1926–60

  ‘German Scientists’, El Paso Herald Post, 20 December 1946

  ‘German Scientists’, El Paso Times, 1 July 1947

  ‘German Pupils’, El Paso Herald Post, 5 August 1947

  ‘Man Will Conquer Space Soon’, series in Collier’s starting 22 March 1952

  ‘Space Pioneer: Will Man Outgrow the Earth?’, Time, 8 December 1952

  ‘Space Expert Pledges Allegiance to the US’, Nashville Banner, 15 April 1955

  New York Times, 5 October 1957

  ‘Von Braun Assesses Missile Program’, Washington Post, 10 November 1957

  ‘Experts to Discuss Space Law Issues’, San Francisco Chronicle, 10 November 1957

  ‘Army Let in on Satellite Effort’, San Francisco Chronicle, 12 November 1957

  ‘First Sputnik, then the World’, New York Mirror, 24 November 1957

  ‘All-round Push to Dominate Space Urged’, Sunday Star, 15 December 1957

  Pravda, Professor K. Sergeev, December 1957

  Time magazine, 20 April 1959

  New York Times, 22 November 1960

  New York Times, April 1961

  Life magazine, October 1961

  Pravda, Professor K. Sergeev, 31 December 1961

  Von Braun, Wernher, ‘Dr … Questions About Space’, Popular Science, Volume 182, No. 1, January 1963

  —, Wernher, ‘Can We Ever Go to the Stars?’, Popular Science, Vol 183, No. 1, July 1963 New York Times, November 1963

  ‘Soviets Lift Edge of Rocket Shroud’, New York Times, 7 November 1965

  ‘Russians’ Space Ship Designer Korolev Dies’, Washington Post, 16 January 1966

  ‘S. P. Korolev is Dead at 59 …’, New York Times, 16 January 1966

  ‘Soviet Shift Hints New Space Chief’, New York Times, 26 June 1966

  ‘Soviet Space Lag Laid to Economy’, New York Times, 23 December 1966

  ‘Russia Seems to be Cranking Up’, Washington Post, 15 January 1967

  Richard Porter, GE Public Relations magazine (internal distribution) article on Wernher von Braun

  INTERNET

  V-2 rocket statistics; Mittelwerk statistics: http://www.v2rocket.com/start/makeup/design.html

  V-2 casualties statistics: http://gi.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_16.html

  Eyewitness accounts from the 104th Division: http://www.104infdiv.org/nordhausen_survivor.htm http://members.aol.com/Galione3/timberwolf415b003.htm

  TELEVISION DOCUMENTARIES

  BBC documentary series: The Cold War BBC/CNN 1998

  BBC documentaries: Reputations: Wernher von Braun, 17 July 1999; The Paperclip Conspiracy, 20 February 1987; BBC Red Star in Orbit series, 1984

  INDEX

  The pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific passage, please use the search feature of your e-book reader.

  A-4 rocket, see V-2 rocket

  Abramov, Anatoly 159

  Academy of Artillery Sciences, USSR xi, 124, 127, 151

  Afanasyev, Sergei 327

  Agena satellite 303�
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  Aldrin, Buzz 330–31, 335–7

  ‘all-up’ testing 278, 316

  Alliluyeva, Svetlana 136

  Anders, Bill 324, 326

  animals in space 169–71, 229

  chimps 225–7, 266–7

  dogs 170, 213–14, 228–30, 233, 306–7

  Annual Symposium on Space Travel (1952) 142

  Apollo programme 290, 344

  Apollo 1 disaster 308–10

  Apollo 4 316–18, 320

  Apollo 5 320

  Apollo 6 322–3

  Apollo 8 circumlunar mission 324–7

  Apollo 9 and 10 330, 331

  Apollo 11 moon landing 330–32, 334–9

  command module 284–5, 307, 316

  design stages 269, 274, 277, 284–5

  lunar module 284–5, 320–21, 330–31, 335

  service module 284–5

  Armstrong, Neil 303–5, 321

  Apollo 11 commander 330–31, 335–8

  first man on moon 338–9

  astronauts 201, 220–21

  Astronaut Office 330

  Mercury pilots chosen 224–5

  press conference 195–8

  recruitment tests 190–2

  Atlas rocket 146, 190, 198–200

  atomic bomb 41, 66, 97, 98, 131

  American 72, 90, 105, 107, 136

  Soviet 72, 107–8, 123, 125, 131, 132

  see also nuclear weapons

  Babakin, Georgi 306, 334

  Baikonur Cosmodrome 156, 160–61

  construction of 147–9

  Khrushchev’s visit 282

  launch pad 157

  manned Vostok launch 233–6, 245

  N-1 launch disaster 332–3

  naming of 259

  R-16 tragedy 215–17

  Balanina, Maria Nikolaevna 80–81

  Bales, Steve 336–7

  Bavaria 29, 37–9, 41–4, 46

  Bay of Pigs 248

  Belyayev, Pavel 285–8

  Béon, Yves 34

  Beria, Lavrenti Pavlovich 114, 118

  death of 141

  head of NKVD x, 65, 86

  heads nuclear programme 72

  and Korolev 86, 122–3

  and Stalin’s death 136–7, 141

  Beria, Nina 141

  Berlin 8, 25, 44, 90, 92

  University 9

  Wall 260, 279

  Blagonravov, Anatoli 125, 127

  Bleicherode 24, 25, 74, 316

  Blizna, Poland 11, 17, 20

  Boeing 219

  Bolotin, Aleksandr 216–17

  Bondarenko, Valentin 232, 288

  Borman, Frank 324, 326

  Brandt, Lt 20

  Braun, Eva 44–5

  Braun, Wernher von, see von Braun, W.

  Breitenbach, Agent 19–20

  Brezhnev, Leonid 247, 280–82, 284, 289, 299, 311

  Britain: intelligence services 16, 17, 23, 35, 59, 91

  rocketry 91, 94–5, 99

  Bromley, Major William 50, 55, 58

  Buchenwald 32, 119, 343

  Bulganin, Nikolai Aleksandrovich 136

  Buran space shuttle 344

  Butler, Paul 171

  Bykovsky, Major Valentin 276

  Camp Dora 31, 33–4, 67, 71, 341, 342

  war crimes trial 110–12, 119–20, 342

  Cape Canaveral, Florida 141–2, 162, 220

  Atlas launch disaster 198–9

  expansion 257, 272, 278

  first manned launch 248–9

  renamed Cape Kennedy 315

  Vanguard launch fiasco 172–4

  vehicle assembly building 257, 278, 315

  Carpenter, Scott 196, 221

  Castro, Fidel 248

  Central Committee for Defence Industries and Space, USSR 280

  Central Design Bureau 29, Moscow 87

  Chaffee, Roger 307–10

  Chelomei, Vladimir

  fall from grace 289

  favoured by Khrushchev 186, 188, 261, 263, 282, 289

  relations with Glushko 292

  rise to power 186

  rivalry with Korolev 186, 275

  UR-200/UR-500 263, 282

  Chertok, Boris Yevseyevich 100, 156, 262, 296

  and Korolev 92–3, 95, 299–301

  at NII-88 98

  plan to kidnap von Braun 72–5

  and Soyuz 328

  V-2 investigations 21, 66–71

  and Vostok 212–13, 214

  China 131, 136

  Churchill, Winston 18, 20, 49, 126

  Iron Curtain speech 97

  CIA 144, 145, 248, 322, 332

  Cocoa Beach, Florida 220–21, 316

  Cold War ix, xi, 131, 149, 167, 218, 273

  Collier’s magazine 133, 265

  Collins, Mike 325, 330, 336

  Combined Allied Intelligence Report (August 1944) 19

  Committee on Special Capabilities 144, 149–50

  communism 131, 132, 279

  Communist Party, Soviet (CPSU) 113

  Central Committee 141, 151, 214, 233, 271

  computers 164, 336

  Conrad, Pete 291

  Cooper, Gordon 196, 278, 291

  cosmonauts

  fatalities 232

  female 276, 293

  meeting with Korolev 209–12

  recruitment 201–2

  training 206–7, 232

  Vostok pilots chosen 228

  Council of Chief Designers, USSR 193

  Council of Ministers, USSR 151, 158, 271, 313

  Cronkite, Walter 317

  Cuba 248, 272

  Cuban Missile Crisis xi, 272–3, 279

  Cuxhaven 94

  Dachau 110, 112, 119

  Dallas, Texas 278

  Debus, Dr Kurt 120, 154, 174–5, 227

  Dnepropetrovsk 185

  docking in space 182

  Apollo 330, 331

  Apollo-Soyuz 344

  Gemini programme 295, 303–5

  Soyuz programme 258, 327

  Doenitz, Grand Admiral Karl 45

  Dora (Michel) 341–2

  Dora-Nordhausen War Crimes Trial 110–12, 119–20, 342

  Dornberger, Gen. Walter 15, 28, 53, 75

  and fall of Germany 26, 27, 42–3, 62

  heads German rocket programme 5, 9, 11–12

  surrenders to Americans 47, 50–51

  and von Braun’s arrest 54–5

  as war criminal 91, 110, 342–3

  Eagle lunar module 336–8

  earth orbit rendezvous (EOR) 265, 268–9

  Edwards Air Force Base, California 269

  Ehrenberg, Ilya 6

  Eisenhower, Dwight D. xi, 46, 171, 190

  on Apollo programme 277

  and Cuba 248

  Huntsville visit 218–19

  Khrushchev visits 202–3

  NASA created by 187, 218

  nuclear arsenal 136

  reservations about space race 218

  and satellite programme 144, 147, 149

  El Paso 104, 106, 107

  Ellington Air Force Base, Texas 320

  engines 182

  combustion instability 269–70, 273–4, 277, 303

  F-1 264, 269–70, 273, 303, 316, 322–3

  liquid fuel 140, 270

  multichambered 139–40, 155

  NK-15/NK-21 271, 274

  RD-101 121, 126, 127

  RD-105 to RD-108 140

  steering (vernier) 139, 140, 155

  Eniwetok Atoll 135

  Explorer satellites 172, 175, 183

  Faget, Maxime 198, 227, 266, 267

  Mercury designer 189, 192, 219

  and moon mission 268, 334

  Farris, Sgt Ragene 31–2

  FBI 132–3, 145

  Feoktistov, Konstantin 183, 211, 280, 283

  Figaro, Le 168

  Fleischer, Karl Otto 56–8

  ‘Flying Bedstead’ 320–21, 330, 336, 337

  Fort Bliss, Texas 104–6

  Frau im Mond 8

  Fr
ench Army 41, 44, 45

  Fuchs, Klaus 132

  fuels, rocket

  acid 184–5, 217

  cryogenic 262

  liquid hydrogen 83, 190, 264

  liquid oxygen 9, 10, 21, 83, 185, 190, 271

  unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine 184–5

  Gagarin, Yuri Alexeyevich 207, 212, 319

  background 207, 210–11

  chosen as Vostok pilot 228–9, 231–2

  death in plane crash 318–19

  first man in space 233–47, 252

  relations with Korolev 292, 294, 295–6, 300

  and Soyuz 311, 313–14

  Gaidukov, Lev Mikhailovich 99–100

  heads Soviet rocket team 20, 66

  heads Institute Nordhausen 96

  and Institute Rabe 72, 76

  Gallai, Mark 229, 240, 243

  Gallione, John 31

  Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bavaria 47, 51, 56

  Gemini Project 279, 284, 285, 293

  docking in space 303–4

  first launch 291

  records 295, 324

  Germany

  Allied zones 49–50, 58–62, 66

  concentration camps 30–34, 52–3, 55, 68, 110, 341–3

  Nazi x, 3–5, 10

  post-war 97

  rocket programme 4, 9–19

  rocket research banned 97

  World War II 25, 40–41, 49, 210–11

  Gestapo 53–4, 73, 78

  Gilruth, Robert 188–9, 219, 222, 224–5, 227, 268

  GIRD (Group for the Investigation of Reactive Motion) 81–2, 277

  Glenn, John 196–7, 198, 220–21, 224–5 first American in space 266, 267–8

  Glennan, Keith 187

  Glushko, Valentin Petrovich 94, 215, 217, 240, 271, 276, 299

  anonymity broken 276–7

  arrest and imprisonment 78, 79, 84, 89, 113

  breach with Korolev 186, 262–3, 274–5, 292, 295

  as Chief Designer 113, 344

  cooperation with Chelomei 292

  denunciation of Korolev 85, 113

  design bureau depleted 228

  engine designer 83, 104, 113, 135, 186

  at Lehesten engine testing plant 92, 96

  meetings with Khrushchev 152, 184, 206

  professional clashes with Korolev 140, 160–61

  RD-101 engine 121, 126, 127

  RD-107/-108 engines 140, 155

  and Sputnik launch 165–6

  Goddard, Robert 82

  Goebbels, Joseph 44

  Golovanov, Yaroslav 79, 89, 94, 107, 109, 124, 206, 292, 298

  Gorodomlya Island 102, 122, 145