The Campaigns of Napoleon

by David G Chandler

  The most blatant Napoleonic propagandists have attempted to represent the struggle of Heilsberg as a considerable French success. It must be granted that, as at Eylau, the French were left, eventually, in possession of the ground, but the purpose of the action, the cutting off of Bennigsen from Königsberg, had been a total failure. Napoleon’s tactics on this occasion lacked all finesse, taking the form of a series of sledgehammer frontal attacks against numerically superior and well-entrenched adversaries. Nor had the events of June 10 done anything to quench the flames of rivalry and dissensions that were beginning to dog the relationships of the Emperor’s subordinates. General Savary openly spoke his mind about Murat’s overbearing and insulting conduct during the afternoon battle, ending with a statement that “it would be better if he was endowed with less courage and with rather more common sense.”9 Lannes was even more outspoken, and although Napoleon crushingly silenced these critics of his brother-in-law, he remembered their words. After Friedland, he was to put Murat in his place when he compared the flashy Gascon’s latest essay at extravagant design of uniform with that of Franconi, the circus rider. No reproof could have cut the vain Murat to the very quick more surely.

  At four in the morning of June 12, the French took unopposed possession of the Heilsberg Heights. Napoleon now calculated that the retiring Bennigsen would be bound to recross the Alle onto the left bank further down the river, and consequently sent only General Latour-Maubourg’s dragoon division and a couple of light infantry brigades down the right bank, while the rest of the army pressed on hotfoot for Eylau in yet another attempt to interpose themselves between the Russians and Königsberg. Early the next day, the Emperor concluded from patrol reports that Friedland would be the place of the Russian crossing, prior to a general regrouping and concentration near Domnau. Writing to Soult at 11:30

  A.M., he disclosed this conviction: “Until now the foe’s movements have been utterly indecisive; now indications make me believe that they will concentrate at Domnau.”10

  The town of Domnau lies some 20 miles north of Heilsberg at the important junction of the Friedland and Landsberg-Königsberg highways. A distance of 15 miles separates it from Königsberg, the great fortress and city lying at the eastern extremity of the Frisches Haff, which, in June 1807, comprised the last stronghold of the Hohenzollerns and the current center of operations of General Bennigsen. Napoleon’s intention was that Murat and Soult should advance directly on the city by forced marches to split Bennigsen’s army from the Prussian garrison commanded by Genéral Lestocq, and then, if possible, storm Königsberg by an immediate coup de main. On their right would move the corps of Marshal Davout, serving at one and the same time as support for the secondary force and as the link with the main body which was moving directly on Domnau. Davout was also charged with the task of turning Bennigsen’s right flank if the Russians should be forced to turn and give battle at the latter place. As Napoleon was now aiming at nothing less than a battle of annihilation, he also detached Lannes’ corps and sent it eastward to Friedland by way of Lampasch to hold the bridges over the Alle and deprive Bennigsen of an alternative line of retreat to the east.

  In a dispatch to Murat dated “Eylau the 13th,” Napoleon clearly indicated his line of thought.

  Marshal Lannes and his army corps are making for Lampasch but his cavalry heads for Domnau; Marshal Davout marches on Wittenberg; Marshal Soult left here at ten this morning for Kreuzburg. The First Corps have reached Landsberg; Marshal Ney and Mortier are on the point of arriving at Eylau. Push forward your reconnaissance with vigor. If you can find a way of entering Königsberg, you should allocate this task to Marshal Soult, for I would prefer my extreme left to occupy the place. Consequently you ought to instruct the marshal to make for the town without delay. If this does take place, Marshal Davout will approach as close as possible.

  Should the enemy army reach Domnau today, you will still push Marshal Soult toward Königsberg, at the same time placing Marshal Davout in a position from which he can block the head of the enemy army between Domnau and Friedland. Write and tell Marshal Soult that if the enemy advances on Domnau in force, it will be of the utmost importance for the marshal to take possession of the town of Brandenburg, so that I shall have nothing to fear about my lines of communication which will be running to my left.

  If you need some companies of voltigeurs, get in touch as soon as possible with Marshals Davout, Soult and Lannes.11

  However, the 13th drew on with no definite news of the enemy. Lannes’ cavalry commander reported that there was no sign of Bennigsen at Domnau, and Napoleon inferred from this piece of information that his opponent had not yet arrived at Friedland. He now calculated that Bennigsen was no longer attempting to reach Königsberg by the direct route, but that he was making for the River Pregel down the right bank of the River Alle before striking westward for the great metropolis.

  In fact, Napoleon was making a great miscalculation—once again underestimating his opponent. Bennigsen had realized that Lannes’ corps, marching on Friedland, was almost isolated from the rest, and was now determined to make a heavy attack in the hope of eliminating it before effective help could move up. Apart from placing Lannes on a limb, the Emperor was also guilty of overextending his other forces. He had virtually split the rest of his army into two parts by sending Murat, Soult and Davout off toward Königsberg. Assuming that the garrison of the fortress was currently numbering about 50,000, he had detached 60,000 troops from his main body to ensure its fall. In fact, the garrison consisted of only 25,000 men, and Napoleon was sacrificing his concentration without achieving any economy of force.

  It was only at about 9:00

  P.M. on the night of the 13th that headquarters received news that seemed to indicate that something had gone wrong with the Imperial calculations. An exhausted staff officer attached to Lannes’ light cavalry division arrived to acquaint the Emperor with the news that a large enemy force was deployed in the vicinity of Friedland after all. The problem was now to assess whether this was Bennigsen’s whole army or only a detachment.

  Napoleon wrote to Lannes:

  My staff officer arrived here a moment ago, but he cannot give me sufficient information to let me know whether it is the enemy army that is deploying through Friedland or only a part. In any case, Grouchy’s division is already on the road, and when he reaches you he will immediately assume command of the cavalry under your orders. Marshal Mortier is also sending off his cavalry in support of your’s, and is about to move off with his army corps. According to the news I receive, I may also send off Marshal Ney to your aid at one in the morning. [The Emperor was still obsessed with the chance of capturing Königsberg, however, and tended to accord second priority to all other operations. The same dispatch continues:] The Grand Duke of Berg is at the gates of Königsberg; a heavy bombardment against General Lestocq can be heard. It appears that Marshal Soult has destroyed Lestocq’s rear guard at Kreuzburg; the firing and the bombardment only lasted half an hour and that makes us think the rear guard has been overthrown. The Grand Duke is only waiting to learn whether Domnau is occupied by the enemy before marching on Königsberg itself with his infantry.

  Marshal Davout is on the banks of the Frisching. I expect details any moment. If, from the information extracted from your captives, you are certain that the enemy is not in force, I expect you to attack Friedland and make yourself master of this important post. If it proves necessary, the 1st Corps can reach Domnau before ten in the morning. Write to me every two hours; send me the prisoners’ interrogation reports. If you are at Friedland itself, send me the local magistrate with plenty of information.12

  Within an hour, the Emperor was once more turning his attention northward: “I expect you to be in Königsberg before midday tomorrow,”13 he informed Soult, and at three the next morning, he was again reminding Murat that “There is not a minute to be lost in seizing the town. It is vital that parties of cavalry should advance on the objective along all roads in ho
t pursuit of the foe. You can employ all of Marshal Soult and possibly also Marshal Davout, but only use the latter if it is absolutely necessary.”14

  53

  THE BATTLE OF FRIEDLAND

  All this time French and Russian troops were converging on Friedland from opposite directions. By 6:00

  P.M. Gallitzin’s squadrons had driven Lannes’ reconnoitering cavalry back from the town toward Domnau, occupying the outlying village of Posthenen. Two hours later, Bennigsen arrived in person, and eager to effect the destruction of Lannes on the morrow, he ordered the construction of three pontoon bridges to enable his arriving division to cross directly over the Saale. Throughout the night the transfer of units continued and by dawn on the 14th (about 3:30

  A.M.) perhaps 10,000 Russians were deployed on the left bank with many more dense columns hurrying towards the bridgehead. By this time Lannes had ordered up Duffin’s brigade and Oudinot’s grenadiers in support of his repulsed cavalry, and these troops succeeded in recapturing Posthenen at the very moment that Grouchy arrived with the first mounted reinforcements. At this juncture the French had 9,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry on the field. However, the first act of the real battle may be said to have begun when the Russian batteries opened up shortly before dawn.

  The town of Friedland stands on the left bank of the tortuous River Alle about 15 miles from Domnau and perhaps 30 miles southwest of Königsberg. To the west of the town, three villages form an arc; the most northerly is Heinrichsdorf on the main road to Königsberg; two miles west of Friedland stands the second—the hamlet of Posthenen, which has already appeared in our narrative; the third, Sortlach, lies one mile south of Friedland, but separated from the town by several interposed bends of the Alle. A rivulet known as the Millstream runs through Posthenen toward Friedland, ending in a considerable lake on the northern outskirts. The general nature of the terrain on the west bank of the Alle is gently undulating pastureland with occasional copses, but some miles out, two considerable acreages of forest break the plain; namely Bothkeim Wood to the north of the Millstream and Sortlach Wood to its south.

  The first engagements of the day centered around possession of Posthenen and Heinrichsdorf. Lannes succeeded in keeping control of the former, but Grouchy was less fortunate outside the latter, although he was eventually able to hold his ground. So matters stood by 9:00

  A.M., at which time the French numbered 9,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry while no less than 45,000 Russians were in position over the river. Lannes’ strategy was clear. His duty was to pin down Bennigsen’s far larger army and lure as much of it as possible over the Alle while awaiting the arrival of Napoleon and the main mass of the French army. Fortunately the Russian general contented himself with desultory fighting throughout the morning, spending much time perfecting the dispositions of his divisions on the plain.

  The Russian general drew up six infantry divisions in two lines, four to the north of the Millstream, two to the south, several wooden bridges being thrown across the brook in an attempt to improve intercommunication between the two sections. The Cossacks were placed around Dambrau wood to hold the northern flank, whilst on the left, 3,000 picked light infantry held Sortlach Wood supported by more men, horses and guns near the village of the same name. Command of the left was entrusted to Generals Bagration and Kologribov and the right to General Gortchakov. The arrival of Mortier’s leading division at about 9:30

  A.M. brought Lannes’ strength up to 35,000, and by 10:00

  A.M., 40,000 men were in the field.

  Shortly after midday, Napoleon and his staff arrived on the scene to take over the battle from Lannes. Behind them, the long columns of reinforcements from the vicinity of Eylau were coming into sight. As they reconnoitered Bennigsen’s positions through their spyglasses from near Posthenen, the staff officers tried to determine whether the entire Russian army lay before them. Opinions differed as to whether it was advisable to force the main battle that day or wait until the morrow. For a time it seemed that the second course of action would be adopted; “The cannonade has been in progress here since 3:00

  A.M.,” wrote Berthier to Murat some hours later. “The enemy appears to be here with all his army in order of battle…. His Majesty hopes that you are already master of Königsberg … and that you are now marching for Friedland with two regiments of cuirassiers and Marshal Davout’s corps; for it is conceivable that the battle may last over into tomorrow. Endeavor, therefore, to arrive here by 1:00

  A.M. Should the Emperor become satisfied that the enemy is here in great force, it is possible that he may rest satisfied with bombarding him (today) and wait for you. Pass on the relevant parts of this dispatch to Marshals Soult and Davout.”15

  The Battle of Friedland, June 14, 1807—a map drawn in the 1820’s by Prussian cartographers

  The consensus among the staff was that it would be best to hold over the main attack until June 15, for by that time Murat and Davout would have brought the army up to overwhelming strength. The Emperor was not so sure; his keen eye and tactical insight had already revealed the flaws in the enemy’s dispositions. Bennigsen’s army was at present in a very false position inviting attack. Despite the four bridges crossing the Saale, it had been a mistake to deploy the Russian forces with their backs to a river. What was more, the fact that the Russian line was further divided into two by the Millstream and its lake would make it, in all probability, extremely difficult for the Russian wings to support one another or to maneuver effectively in any direction. “No, No!” exclaimed the Emperor, overhearing his officers discussing the wisdom of a postponement. “We can’t hope to surprise the enemy making the same mistake twice.”16 The conviction that a magnificent opportunity was presenting itself steadily grew as the afternoon passed in desultory bombardment.

  By four o’clock the Imperial Guard and the balance of the 1st Corps were in position, and Napoleon decided that there were now enough men available (almost 80,000) to win a decisive victory. His aim was to destroy the Russians drawn up across the neck of ground in front of the right angle formed by the River Alle, exploiting the fact that the enclosed area was further bisected by the Millstream. The Russians were deployed along a four-mile line on both sides of the latter, but there were decidedly fewer of them on the southern bank; these, then were to be the preliminary target. The Emperor decided to launch an immediate attack without wasting any more time on bombardment. Ney’s corps should lead the onslaught and attempt to defeat the enemy left, and then destroy at least two of the bridges running over the Alle to the Russian rear. This move, if successful, should complete the demoralization of the foe, and even if sizeable parts of the army succeeded in escaping northward towards Königsberg, these would run straight into the welcoming arms of the approaching masse de manoeuvre of Murat and Davout.

  At 5:00

  P.M., the staff issued the definitive orders dated from “the bivouac behind Posthenen”:

  Marshal Ney will form up on the right between Posthenen and Sortlach, in support of General Oudinot’s present position. Marshal Lannes will hold the center, his position extending from Heinrichsdorf to close by Posthenen. Oudinot’s grenadiers, at present forming the right of Marshal Lannes, will incline slightly to their left so as to attract the enemy’s attention. Marshal Lannes will close up his divisions as much as possible so as to form two lines by this movement. The army’s left will be formed by Marshal Mortier, holding Heinrichsdorf and the Königsberg road, and thence extending to face the Russian right wing. Marshal Mortier will never advance, as the movement will be by our right, using the left as a pivot.

  General d’Espagnes’ cavalry and General Grouchy’s dragoons, together with the horsemen of the left wing, will maneuver so as to inflict the greatest possible harm on the enemy when he feels the necessity to retreat, pressed by the vigorous attack of our right.

  General Victor and the Imperial Guard—both horse and foot—will form the reserve and will be positioned at Grunhof, Bothkeim and behind Posthenen.<
br />
  Lahoussaye’s dragoon division will be placed under General Victor’s orders: Latour-Maubourg’s dragoons will obey Marshal Ney; General Nansouty’s heavy cavalry division will be at Marshal Lannes’ disposal, and will fight alongside the cavalry of the army’s Reserve Corps in the center.

  I shall be found with the Reserve.

  The advance must always be from the right, and the initiation of the movement must be left to Marshal Ney, who will await my order.

  As soon as the right advances against the enemy, all the guns of the entire line will redouble their fire in the direction which will be most useful to protect the attack by the right wing.17

  Since the beginning of the day the Emperor had been in an optimistic mood. Marbot was one of the messengers sent back by Lannes’ to inform Napoleon of the progress of the morning battle already described. “I found him radiating joy. He placed me beside him, and as we galloped onward, I explained what had taken place before my departure from the battlefield. When my tale was told, the Emperor asked me, smiling; ‘How good is your memory?’—‘Passable, Sire’—‘Well then, what anniversary is it today, the fourteenth June?’—‘That of Marengo.’—‘Yes, yes,’ replied the Emperor, ‘that of Marengo, and I am going to beat the Russians just as I beat the Austrians!’

  “Napoleon was so convinced about this that as he passed the columns, whose soldiers saluted him with numerous cheers, he repeatedly called out, ‘Today is a happy day—it is the anniversary of Marengo.’”18

  Exactly at 5:30

  P.M., the lull that had descended over the battlefield was shattered by several salvos from a French 20-gun battery fired in quick succession. It was Napoleon’s signal to Marshal Ney. Bennigsen was considerably surprised when he saw French troops issuing from Sortlach Wood and making for his left wing, for he considered that the hour was too advanced for a renewal of the battle that day. In fact, the French attack came in the nick of time. The Russian commander in chief, who had come to realize the perils of his present position, was in the act of issuing orders for his army to withdraw to the right bank of the Saale. In the light of the new French attack these orders had to be countermanded.