The Orphans of Davenport

by Marilyn Brookwood

  25.Sears interview, by Senn, 15, MJES.

  26.Sears interview, by Senn, 15, MJES.

  27.Lawrence K. Frank, “Research in Child Psychology: History and Prospect,” in Child Behavior and Development, ed. Robert G. Barker, Jacob S. Kounin, and Herbert F. Wright (New York: McGraw Hill, 1943), 1–16.

  28.Frank, “Research in Child Psychology,” 7.

  29.Marie Skoda Crissey, interview by Henry L. Minton, January 15, 1982, 19, MSC.

  30.Harold M. Skeels to Robert R. Sears, May 2, 1943, UISP.

  31.Sears to Skeels, November 14, 1945, UISP.

  32.Skeels to Sears, November 7, 1945, UISP.

  33.Robert R. Sears to R. H. Singleton, December 19, 1945, 2, UISP.

  34.Sears to Singleton, December 19, 1945. UISP.

  35.George Davis Bivin to Robert R. Sears, March 14, 1946, UISP.

  36.Harold M. Skeels to P. F. Hopkins, August 10, 1946, 1, UISP.

  37.Skeels to Hopkins, August 10, 1946, 3, UISP.

  38.George Mills, Des Moines Register, August 13, 1946, 1.

  39.Skeels to Sears, August 12, 1946, UISP.

  40.Skeels to Sears, December 22, 1946, UISP.

  41.Sears to Skeels, January 10, 1947, UISP.

  42.Sears to Skeels, March 22, 1947, UISP.

  43.Sears Interview by Senn, 9, MJES.

  44.Sears Interview by Senn, 18, MJES.

  45.Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in Models, 79.

  46.Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in History, 6.

  47.Marie Skodak Crissey to Earl M. Rogers, December 21, 1982, MSC.

  48.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 115.

  49.Nicholas Pastore, The Nature-Nurture Controversy (New York: Kings Crown Press, Columbia University, 1949), 16.

  50.Lewis M. Terman, quoted in Pastore, Nature-Nurture Controversy, 95.

  51.Terman, “Trails to Psychology,” 329.

  52.Terman, in Pastore, Nature-Nurture Controversy, 88.

  53.Robert M. Sears, “Lewis M. Terman, Pioneer in Mental Measurement,” Science 125 (1957): 978.

  54.Earnest R. Hilgard, “Lewis Madison Terman: 1877–1956,” American Journal of Psychology 70, no. 3 (1957): 478.

  Chapter Eleven: Reversal of Fortune

  1.Lee McCardell, “McCardell Visits Scene of Nazi Mass Murder,” Baltimore Sun, April 7, 1945.

  2.McCardell, “Nazi Mass Murder.”

  3.Edward R. Murrow, In Search of Light: The Broadcasts of Edward R. Murrow, ed. Edward Bliss Jr. (New York: Avon Books, 1967), 108, 110.

  4.Deborah E. Lipstadt, Beyond Belief: The American Press and The Coming of the Holocaust 1933–1935 (New York: The Free Press, 1986), 135–239.

  5.Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 251.

  6.Chase, Legacy of Malthus, 364.

  7.Skodak Crissey, “How It All Began” 17, MSC.

  8.Harold Anderson interview by Milton J. E. Senn, December 8, 1970, interview 2, transcript, 37, 40, MJES.

  9.Boyd R. McCandless and Charles C. Spiker, “Experimental Research in Child Psychology,” Child Development 27, no. 1 (1956): 77–78.

  10.McCandless and Spiker, “Experimental Research,” 78.

  11.Institute of Child Behavior and Development, Fifty Years of Research, 1917–1967 (Iowa City: University of Iowa, 1967), iii.

  12.René Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Genesis of Psychiatric Conditions in Early Childhood,” in The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, Vol. I, ed. Anna Freud, Willie Hoffer, and Edward Glover (London: International University Press, Imago Publishing, 1945), 73.

  13.Floyd M. Crandall, “Hospitalism,” Archives of Pediatrics 14, no. 6 (1897): 448–54, accessed November 13, 2019, http://www.neonatology.org/classics/crandall.html.

  14.Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry,” 53.

  15.Spitz, “Hospitalism: An Inquiry,” 67.

  16.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 6, MSC.

  17.Joseph McVicker Hunt, interview by Milton J. E. Senn, June 9, 1974, interview 30A, transcript, MJES.

  18.Harry Bakwin, quoted in Robert Karen, Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 20.

  19.Harry Bakwin, “Psychologic Aspects of Pediatrics: Emotional Deprivation in Infants,” Journal of Pediatrics 35, no. 4 (1949): 512.

  20.John Bowlby, Maternal Care and Mental Health: A Report Prepared on Behalf of the World Health Organization as a Contribution to the United Nations Programme for the Welfare of Homeless Children, Geneva, 15.

  21.Bowlby, Maternal Care and Mental Health, 19.

  22.William Goldfarb, “Infant Rearing and Problem Behavior,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 13 (1943): 249.

  23.Goldfarb, “Infant Rearing,” 249.

  24.Goldfarb, “Infant Rearing,” 249.

  25.Wayne Dennis, “Infant Development under Conditions of Restricted Practice and Minimal Social Stimulation,” Genetic Psychology Monographs 23 (1941): 187.

  26.Dennis and Najarian, “Environmental Handicap,” 6.

  27.Dennis and Najarian, “Environmental Handicap,” 1–4.

  28.Dennis and Najarian, “Environmental Handicap,” 12.

  29.Dennis and Najarian, “Environmental Handicap,” 11.

  30.Dennis and Najarian, “Environmental Handicap,” 12.

  31.Bernadine Schmidt, “Changes in Personal, Social, and Intellectual Behavior of Children Originally Classified as Feebleminded,” Psychological Monographs 60, no. 5 (1946): 1–144.

  32.Samuel A. Kirk, Early Education of the Mentally Retarded: An Experimental Study (Urbana IL: University of Illinois Press, 1958), 205.

  33.Stoddard, Meaning of Intelligence, 281.

  34.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 116.

  35.Robert M. Thomas, “Samuel A. Kirk, 92, Pioneer of Special Education Field,” New York Times, January 16, 1964.

  36.Simon Auster, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, May 1, 2014.

  37.Simon Auster, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, May 24, 2012.

  38.Marie Skodak Crissey to Harold M. Skeels’s unnamed cousin, ca. April 1970.

  39.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 116.

  40.Thomas Gladwin, “Statement By Dr. Thomas Gladwin,” June 14, 1961, 1–2, MSC.

  41.Gladwin, “Statement,” 1–2.

  42.Joseph McVicker Hunt, “A Professional Odyssey,” in The Psychologists, ed. T. S. Krawiec (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 181.

  43.Wade E. Pickren, “Joseph McVicker Hunt, Golden Age Psychologist,” in Portraits of Pioneers in Developmental Psychology, ed. Wade E. Pickren, Donald A. Dewsbury, and Michael Wertheimer (New York: Psychology Press, 2012), 197.

  44.Hunt, “A Professional Odyssey,” 185.

  45.Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 19.

  46.Hunt, interview by Senn, 45, MJES.

  47.Maris Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 73–74.

  48.Vinovskis, Birth of Head Start, 11; Edward Zigler and Sally Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010),: 16.

  49.Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 28.

  50.Joseph McVicker Hunt, “The Psychological Basis for Using Pre-School Enrichment as Antidote for Cultural Deprivation,” Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development 10 (1964): 209. (Paper delivered at Arden House in 1962.)

  51.Joseph McVicker Hunt, “Environmental Programming to Foster Competence and Prevent Mental Retardation in Infancy,” in Environments as Therapy for Brain Dysfunction, ed. Roger N. Walsh and William T. Greenough (New York: Plenum Press, 1976), 210.

  52.Hunt, “Psychological Basis,” 212.

  53.Martin Deutsch, “Facilitating Development in the Pre-School Child: Social and Psychological Perspectives,” Merrill Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development 10, no. 3 (1964): 252.

  54.Anahad O’Connor, “Dr. Martin Deutsch, an Innovator in Education, Dies at 76,�
�� New York Times, July 5, 2002.

  55.Julius Richmond, interview by Milton J. E. Senn, July 12, 1958, interview 58, 15, MJES.

  56.Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, 83–87.

  57.Donald O. Hebb, The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory (New York: Wiley, 1949), 295.

  58.Richard E. Brown, “The Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb, Canada’s Greatest Psychologist,” Proceedings of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science 44 (2007): 12.

  59.Hebb, Organization of Behavior, 70.

  60.Hebb, Organization of Behavior, 298.

  61.Brown, “Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb,” 2.

  62.Brown, “Life and Work of Donald Olding Hebb,” 13.

  63.Edward Zigler and Susan Muenchow, Head Start: The Inside Story of America’s Most Successful Educational Experiment (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 16.

  64.Uri Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 3.

  65.Bronfenbrenner, Ecology of Human Development, 37.

  66.Harold Skeels and Marie Skodak, “Techniques for a High-Yield Follow-Up Study in the Field,” Public Health Reports 80, no. 3 (1965): 249–57.

  67.Skeels and Skodak, “Techniques for a High-Yield Follow-Up,” 252.

  68.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 9, MSC.

  69.Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 13.

  70.Harold M. Skeels, “The Relation of the Foster Home Environment to the Mental Development of Children Placed in Infancy,” Child Development 7, no. 1 (1936): 4–5.

  71.Skeels Records, 1933–1966, Case 5.

  72.Skeels, Case 8.

  73.Skeels, Case 8.

  74.Skeels, Case 7.

  75.Skeels, Case 7.

  76.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” 42.

  77.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 9.

  78.Skeels, Case 4.

  79.Skeels, Case 9.

  80.Skeels, Case 9.

  81.Skeels, Case 9.

  82.Skeels, Case 10.

  83.Skeels, Case 10.

  84.Because Louis Branca had publicly told his story of institutionalization and recovery, the author was able to interview him. The information about his life after Glenwood comes from those interviews and from Harold Skeels’s records, in which he is case 11.

  85.Skeels, Case 11.

  86.Skeels, Case 11.

  87.Skeels, Case 11.

  88.Skeels, Case 15.

  89.Skeels, Case 17.

  90.Skeels, Case 20.

  91.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 117.

  92.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” 10.

  93.Skodak Crissey, interview by Fischer, 14.

  94.Skeels, Case 19.

  95.Marie Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in History, 67.

  96.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 50.

  97.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 51.

  98.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 51.

  99.Skodak Crissey, interview by Senn, 51.

  100.John Bowlby to Harold M. Skeels, January 28, 1965, MSC.

  101.Margaret Lowenfeld to Simon Auster, April 5, 1965, MSC.

  102.Lowenfeld to Auster, April 5, 1965.

  103.Simon Auster to Margaret Lowenfeld, April 20, 1965.

  104.Robert S. Woodworth and Harold Schlosberg, Experimental Psychology (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1963), 910–48.

  105.Allen E. Marans and Dale R. Meers, “Group Care of Infants in Other Countries,” in Early Child Care: The New Perspectives, ed. Caroline Al Chandler, Reginald S. Lourie, and Anne DeHuff Peters (New York: Atherton Press, 1968), 274.

  106.Edward Zigler and Sally J. Styfco, The Hidden History of Head Start (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 7.

  107.Marie Skodak to Harold M. Skeels and Thomas Gladwin, January 14, 1966, MSC.

  108.Skodak to Skeels and Gladwin, January 14, 1966, MSC.

  109.Marie Skodak to Alfred E. Mirsky, January 14, 1966, MSC.

  110.Eric H. Davidson, in conversation with Marilyn Brookwood, Pasadena, March 24, 2008; Bruce McEwen, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, January 25, 2012.

  111.Alfred E. Mirsky, “Genetics and Human Affairs,” Scientific American 211, no. 4 (1964): 137.

  112.Mirsky, “Genetics and Human Affairs,” 137.

  113.Alfred E. Mirsky to Harold M. Skeels, January 18, 1966, MSC.

  114.Skeels to Mirsky, January 22, 1966, MSC.

  115.Kandel and Squire, “Breaking Down Scientific Barriers,” 1113.

  Chapter Twelve: The Counter-Argument

  1.Marie Skodak, “Adult Status,” draft, 13.

  2.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” iii.

  3.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” 12.

  4.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” 37.

  5.Skeels, “Adult Status of Children,” 37.

  6.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 14.

  7.Skeels and Skodak, “Adult Status of Individuals,” draft, 15.

  8.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 15.

  9.Asbell, “Case of the Wandering IQs,” 18.

  10.Skodak Crissey, “Harold Manville Skeels,” 3.

  11.Urie Bronfenbrenner, First American Psychological Association Division 7 Award to Harold M. Skeels, 1967, 1–2, MSC.

  12.Personal communication, Maggie Nygren, November 14, 2018.

  13.Harold M. Skeels to Eunice Kennedy Shriver, March 6, 1968, MSC.

  14.Eunice Kennedy Shriver to Harold M. Skeels, April 29, 1968.

  15.Eunice Kennedy Shriver, “Hope for Retarded Children,” Saturday Evening Post, September 22, 1962.

  16.Shriver, “Hope for Retarded Children.”

  17.Minneapolis Star, April 30, 1968.

  18.Minneapolis Star, April 30, 1968.

  19.Louis C. Branca, interview by Marilyn Brookwood, September 12, 2012.

  20.Branca, interview by Brookwood, September 12, 2012.

  21.Skodak, “Environmental Factors in Intelligence.”

  22.Skodak, “Environmental Factors in Intelligence.”

  23.Marie Skodak Crissey, “Adult Status of Individuals Who Experienced Early Intervention,” talk presented at the First Congress of the International Association for the Scientific Study of Mental Deficiency, Montpellier, France, September 12–20, 1967, 7.

  24.Harold M. Skeels to Marie Skodak Crissey, March 14, 1970.

  25.Marie Skodak Crissey to Harold M. Skeels’s unnamed cousin, ca. April 1970, MSC.

  26.Marie Skodak Crissey to Diann Sheahan, April 16, 1970, MSC.

  27.Marie Skodak Crissey to Eunice Kennedy Shriver, April 16, 1970, MSC.

  28.Skodak to Skeels’s cousin ca. April 1970.

  29.Skodak Crissey, interview by Fischer, MSC.

  30.Skodak Crissey, “Harold Manville Skeels,” 1.

  31.Tripp Evans email to Marilyn Brookwood, May 22, 2018.

  32.“A Gay Hayday,” Laguna Beach Magazine, December 1, 2012.

  33.LGBT Mental Health Syllabus, The History of Psychiatry and Homosexuality, Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 2012, https://www.aglp.org/gap/1_history/.

  34.Michel Schiff to Marie Skodak, May 16, 1972, MSC.

  35.Schiff to Skodak, May 16, 1972.

  36.Oliver Gillie, “Did Sir Cyril Burt Fake His Research on Heritability of Intelligence? Part I,” Phi Delta Kappan 58, no. 6 (1977): 469–71.

  37.Stephen Jay Gould, The Flamingo’s Smile: Reflections in Natural History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), 387.

  38.Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” in Environment, Heredity and Intelligence, compiled from the Harvard Educational Review, 1969, 1.

  39.Michel Schiff, Michel Duyme, John Stewart, Stanislaw Tomkiewicz, and Josue Feingold, “Intellectual Status of Working-Class Children Adopted Early in Upper-Middle-Class Families,” Science 200 (June 30, 1978): 1504.

  40.Jensen, �
�How Much Can We Boost IQ,” 2, 7.

  41.Jerome Kagan, “Inadequate Evidence and Illogical Conclusions,” in Environment, Heredity and Intelligence, compiled from the Harvard Educational Review, 1969, 127–128.

  42.Joseph McVicker Hunt, “Has Compensatory Education Failed? Has It Been Attempted?” in Environment, Heredity and Intelligence, compiled from the Harvard Educational Review, 1969, 139.

  43.Hunt, “Has Compensatory Education Failed?” 142.

  44.William F. Brazziel, “A Letter from the South,” in Environment, Heredity and Intelligence, compiled from the Harvard Educational Review, 1969, 200.

  45.Richard J. Herrnstein, IQ in the Meritocracy (Boston: Little Brown, 1973), 214.

  46.Schiff et. al, “Intellectual Status of Working-Class Children,” 1504.

  47.Michel Schiff, Michel Duyme, Annick Dumaret, and Stanislaw Tomkiewicz, “How Much Could We Boost Scholastic Achievement and IQ Scores? A Direct Answer from a French Adoption Study,” Cognition 12 (1982): 186.

  48.Marie Skodak Crissey, citation for George D. Stoddard, G. Stanley Hall Award, 1981, MSC.

  49.Marie Skodak Crissey, “A Career Review,” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 23, no. 1 (1992): 12.

  50.Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in Models, 87.

  51.Skodak Crissey, “Marie Skodak Crissey,” in History, 69.

  52.Skodak Crissey, “A Career Review,” 13.

  53.Lorine Pruette, G. Stanley Hall, a Biography of a Mind (New York: Appleton, 1926), 217.

  Epilogue: The Miracle of Science

  1.Charles A. Nelson III, Nathan A. Fox, and Charles H. Zeanah Jr., “Anguish of the Abandoned Child,” Scientific American 308, no. 4 (2013): 62.

  2.Ralph Blumenthal, “Upheaval in the East: Obituary; The Ceauşescus: 24 Years of Fierce Repression, Isolation and Independence,” New York Times, December 26, 1989, A18.

  3.Charles A. Nelson III, Elizabeth A. Furtado, Nathan A. Fox, and Charles H. Zeanah Jr., “The Deprived Human Brain: Developmental Deficits among Institutionalized Romanian Children—and Later Improvements—Strengthen the Case for Individualized Care,” American Scientist 97 (May-June 2009): 222.

  4.Bradley S. Hersh et. al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in Romania,” Lancet 338, no. 8768 (1991): 645.

  5.Mary Battiata, “Despite Aid, Romanian Children Face Bleak Lives,” Washington Post, January 7, 1991.

  6.Mary Battiata, “‘20/20’ Inside Romanian Orphanages,” Washington Post, October 5, 1990.