Story Design
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HOSTILITY: belligerence, animosity, antagonism, antipathy, enmity, opposition, contrariness, malice, viciousness, malevolence, bitterness, spleen, unfriendliness, ill will, rancor, hatred, vindictiveness, venom
IRRITATION: annoy, vex, anger, make impatient, peeve, provoke, nettle, exasperate
LONELINESS: lonely, companionless, alone, friendless, forlorn, desolate, forsaken, alienated, aloof, detached, withdrawn, insular
LONGING: strong desire, yearning, craving, hungering, thirst, wish, aspiration, ardent
LOVE (PARENT-CHILD): devotion, adoration, fondness, tenderness, affection
LOVE (ROMANTIC): passion, passionate affection, rapture, amorousness, ardor, amour, infatuation
PASSION: emotion, feeling, warmth, heart, ardor, fervor, fire, intensity, sentiment, rapture, ecstasy, intoxication, enthusiasm, earnestness, gusto, eagerness, vehemence
RESIGNATION: submission, submissiveness, passiveness, nonresistance, acquiescence, equanimity, stoicism, fatalism, patience
RESTLESSNESS: restiveness, agitation, fretfulness, disquietude, inquietude, edginess, fitfulness, jitters, jumpiness, nervousness, uneasiness, unrest, discontent
REVENGE: vengeance, paying back, retaliation, reprisal, retribution, repayment, eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth
SADNESS: unhappy, cheerless, joyless, grieved, grief-stricken, dispirited, downcast, low, crestfallen, disconsolate, desolate, despondent, melancholy, inconsolable, depressed
SHAME: guilt, remorse, self-disgust, self-abomination, embarrassment, humiliation, mortification, chagrin, shamefacedness, unworthiness, disgrace, dishonor
SURPRISE: astonish, astound, startle, amaze, flabbergast, shock, stun, dumbfound, stagger, strike with awe, defy belief, stupefy, confound, boggle the mind
SYMPATHY: concord, accord, harmony, congeniality, understanding, agreement, rapport, affinity, communion, consonance, unanimity, concert, regard, amity, fellow feeling, fellowship, friendship, concern, compassion, feeling, commiseration, empathy, grief, sorrow, pity
TENDERNESS: softness, gentleness, delicacy, mildness, kindness, kindliness, loving-kindness, compassion, sympathy, goodness, benevolence, beneficence, humanity, mercifulness, fondness, warmth, affection, lovingness, love
WORRY: be anxious, feel uneasy, be apprehensive, be disturbed, be troubled, be distressed, agonize, fret, despair, lose heart, be downhearted, be heavy-hearted, be afraid, dread, brood over, stew
For more illustrative descriptions of these emotions see Creating Character Emotions by Ann Hood
Writing Assignment: Describe three (3) scenes in which a character is feeling a different emotion. Tell the reader what the emotion is that the character is feeling.
THE COGNITIVE THEORY OF EMOTIONS
The most fruitful theory of emotions for story construction is found in The Cognitive Structure of Emotions, as developed by Ortony, Collins, and Clore. Their analysis divides emotions into three general classes: reactions to events, agents, and objects. Emotions arise because of the way situations are construed by a perceiver. " ... some emotions (e.g., disgust), involve much less cognitive processing and structure than others (e.g., shame) ... the claim that emotions always involve some degree of cognition is not the same as asserting that the contribution of cognition is necessarily conscious."
Summary of the Cognitive Theory of Emotions
Emotions are valenced (pro, con) reactions to:
[A]
Consequences of Events
Consequences for Self
Consequences for Others
[B]
Actions of Agents
Self as Agent
Others as Agent
[C]
Aspects of Objects
Events are appraised by desirability with reference to goals.
Actions are appraised by praiseworthiness with reference to standards.
Objects are appraised by appealingness with reference to attitudes.
This theory constructs a classification of distinct emotion types and provides a situational description of the conditions under which the emotion can be generated. These emotion types will be explained in greater detail in the following sections, with examples for each type drawn from scenes in the megahit movies.
Factors Affecting the Intensity of Emotions
Four global variables affect the intensity of the emotions:
(1) Sense of reality: how much one believes the situation is real.
(2) Proximity: how close in terms of psychological space one feels to the situation.
(3) Unexpectedness: how sudden the event occurs and how surprised one is by the situation.
(4) Arousal: how sensually aroused one is to the situation. These four factors affect all the emotions.
Emotional Reactions to Events
Reactions to Events: Consequences for Self
If a character is pleased about a desirable event, then the resulting emotion will be joy. If a character is displeased about an undesirable event, then the resulting feeling is distress. In general, to the extent that the character sees the event as contributing to the realization of his goals, he will tend to experience the positive emotion we call joy. Similarly, to the extent that the person sees the event as interfering with the realization of his goals, he will tend to experience the negative emotion of the kind called distress.
Joy Emotions: pleased about a desirable event (emotion words: contented, cheerful, delighted, ecstatic, euphoric, feeling good, glad, happy, joyful, jubilant, pleasantly surprised, pleased). The Ghostbusters were ecstatic about surviving their battle with Gozer.
Distress Emotions: displeased about a undesirable event (emotion words: depressed, distressed, displeased, dissatisfied, distraught, feeling bad, feeling uncomfortable, grief, homesick, lonely, lovesick, miserable, regret, sad, shock, uneasy, unhappy, upset). Dorothy was upset about the guard not allowing her to see the Wizard. Indiana Jones was miserable about the death of Marion.
Reactions to Events: Consequences for Others
If the character is pleased about an event desirable for some other character, then he will experience a happy-for emotion. If a character is pleased about an event undesirable for some other character, then he will experience a gloating emotion. If a character is displeased about an event desirable for another character, then he will have a resentment emotion. If a character is displeased about an event undesirable for another character, then he will have a sorry-for emotion.
Happy-for Emotions: pleased about an event desirable for someone else (emotion words: delighted-for, happy-for, pleased-for). Dorothy was happy for Toto when he escaped from Elmira Gulch and also later when Toto escaped from the Wicked Witch of the West.
Sorry-for Emotions: displeased about an event that is undesirable for someone else(emotion words: compassion, pity, sad-for, sympathy). Elliott and Michael are sorry for
E.T. when he is ill. Dorothy is sorry for her Aunt Em who she believes is sick.
Resentment Emotions: displeased about an event presumed to be desirable for someone else. (emotion words: envy, jealousy, resentment). The Joker resents Batman for getting all the publicity. The Witch resents Dorothy getting the ruby slippers.
Gloating Emotions: pleased about an event presumed to be desirable for someone else. (emotion words: gloating, Schadenfreude-delighting in the misfortune of others)
The Wicked Witch gloats as she watches Dorothy's desperation as the sand runs out of the hourglass. Belloc gloats as he orders the natives to kill Indiana Jones.
Hope Emotions: pleased about the prospects of a desirable event (emotion words: anticipation, anticipatory excitement, excitement, expectancy, hope, hopeful). The Ghostbusters are excited about the hope of capturing a ghost. Dorothy and her friends hope to see the Wizard of Oz.
Fear Emotions: displeased about the prospects of an undesirable event (emotion words: apprehensive, anxious, cowering, dread, fear, fright, nervous, petrified, scared, terrified). The Lion cowers in fear before the Wizard of Oz. The Ghostbust
ers run in fear from the ghost in the library.
Satisfaction Emotions: pleased about the confirmation of the prospect of a desirable event (emotion words: gratification, hopes-realized, satisfaction). Venkman is satisfied that Dana will finally have dinner with him. Indiana Jones is gratified that he will be able to search for the Ark of the Covenant.
Fears-Confirmed Emotions: displeased about the confirmation of the prospect of an undesirable event (emotion words: worst fears realized) Elliott watches E.T. die. Dorothy loses Toto to Elmira Gulch in the Wizard of Oz. In Ghostbusters, the grid explodes after the power is shut off and all of the ghosts escape.
Relief Emotions: pleased about the disconfirmation of the prospect of an undesirable event (emotion words: relief)
Belloc and Marion were both relieved they were not tortured by the sadistic Nazi in Raiders of the Lost Ark.
Disappointment Emotions: displeased about the disconfirmation of the prospect of a desirable event (emotion words: despair, disappointment, frustration, dashed-hopes, heartbroken). Vicki Vale is disappointed when she discovers Bruce Wayne lied to her about having to go out of town. Dorothy is disappointed by the reaction of the Wizard when she brings him the broomstick of the Wicked Witch.
Emotional Reaction to the Actions of Characters
If a character is appraising his own actions, he will approve of his own praiseworthy actions (resulting in pride) and disapprove of his own blameworthy actions (resulting in shame). If a character is appraising another character's actions, then he will either approve of the other character's praiseworthy action (resulting in admiration), or disapprove of the other character's blameworthy action (resulting in reproach). Emotional reactions of members in the audience to the behavior of characters in the story will also be based on their values and the praiseworthy or blameworthy actions of the characters.
Pride Emotions: approving of one's own praiseworthy action. Elliot is proud of helping E.T. get home. The Scarecrow, Lion and Tin Man are proud of receiving the symbols of achievement from the Wizard.
Self-Reproach Emotions: disapproving of one's own blameworthy action (emotion words: embarrassment, feeling guilty, self-blame, shame) The Scarecrow was ashamed that he is a failure at frightening crows.
Appreciation Emotions: approving of someone else's praiseworthy action (emotion words: admiration, appreciation, awe, esteem, respect) The New York community appreciates the Ghostbusters' efforts to save the world from Gozer. The Mayor of Gotham appreciates Batman's efforts to defeat the Joker.
Reproach Emotions: disapproving of someone else's blameworthy action (emotion words: appalled, contempt, despise, disdain, indignation). Dean Yaegar despises Venkmen's para-psychological research. Dorothy expresses indignation at the Wizard's refusal to keep his promise after she returns with the broomstick of the Wicked Witch of the West.
Gratitude Emotions: approving of someone else's praiseworthy action and being pleased about the related desirable event (emotion words: appreciation, feeling indebted, thankful). The rebel community expresses their gratitude to Luke Skywalker for destroying the Death Star.
Anger Emotions: disapproving of blameworthy action and being displeased about the related undesirable event
(emotion words: annoyance, exasperation, fury, incensed, livid, offended) Elliott is angry with the doctors who are examining E.T.
Gratification Emotions: approving of one's own praiseworthy action and being pleased about the related desirable event (emotion words: pleased-with-oneself, self-satisfaction). The Joker was pleased with himself about allowing the Gotham Anniversary Celebration to occur. Elmira Gulch was smug about getting Toto.
Remorse Emotions: disapproving of one's own blameworthy action and being displeased about the related undesirable event (emotion words: penitence, remorse, self-anger). Indiana Jones felt remorse because he believed he caused the death of Marion. Stantz expressed sincere remorse at destroying the chandelier in the ballroom.
Emotional Reactions to Objects
Objects that cause pleasant feelings, joy, pleasure, or comfort are liked. Objects that cause pain, unpleasant feelings, fear or discomfort are disliked. These likes and dislikes are built upon our attitudes.
Appealingness is rooted in attitudes that are dispositional likes and dislikes. These dispositions are associated with representa- tions of or categories of objects-one may feel disposed to like
dogs and to dislike snakes. Momentary liking (or disliking) thus often derives from how one categorizes an object and what one's disposition is toward objects in that category, as well as from characteristics of the individual object itself.
- Ortony, Clore, Collins, The Cognitive Structure of Emotions
Liking Emotions: (emotion words: adore, attracted-to, like, love) Marion liked the monkey in Raiders of the Lost Ark. Dorothy loved Toto in Wizard of Oz.
Disliking Emotions: (emotion words: aversion, detest, disgust, dislike, hate, loathe). Indiana Jones hates snakes in Raiders of the Lost Ark. Marion is disgusted by the dead bodies she bumps into while in the Well-of-Souls. The Scarecrow loathed fire in Wizard of Oz.
Writing Assignment:Write a character having an emotional reaction to an event, an emotional reaction to an action, and an emotional reaction to an object. Write a one page scene that includes dialogue which expresses the emotions of characters in conflict.
HUMOR
Release the Tension
Make Them Laugh
Emotion and Humor
Humorous Dialogue
Humorous Situations
Humorous Characters
Categories of Humor
EMOTION AND HUMOR
'Laughter often involves major physiological disturbances. There is an interpretation of breathing and the loss of muscle tone; in heavy laughter there may be a loss of muscle control.
John Morreall, Taking Laughter Seriously
The need to change from "one viewpoint to its direct opposite" becomes essential in designing jokes that produce laughter. On the emotional impact of attitude-mixing, D.H. Monro in Argument of Laughter, states "We all of us practice a mental compartmentalism: we sort out the facts of our environment into different mental compartments, and decide that a particular attitude and emotion is appropriate to each. The linking of disparates may mean the shattering of this orderly system. We then have an attitude-mixing or universe-changing."
The famous French philosopher, Henri Bergson, stated, "Laughter is incompatible with emotion. Depict some fault, however trifling, in such a way to arouse sympathy, fear or pity; the mischief is done, it is impossible for us to laugh." This is true only if the situation concludes by being a state of affairs truly eliciting sympathy, fear, or pity. But it is not true if there is a sudden change of interpretation of the situation that it concludes by being non-threatening. Then the pent up energy is released, which in itself, is a pleasurable feeling. Emotions and laughter are not incompatible, as Bergson held. On the contrary, strong emotions are necessary for the greatest outbursts of laughter. It is only certain types of emotions, like pity, fear, or anger, if they persist in a situation, will block laughter.
There seems to be a structure to the emotional dynamics underlying the laughter producing process. The viewer perceives a situation. Suddenly, he notices an "incongruity"; something is occurring that is inappropriate
in this type of situation. There is a deviation from the patterns the viewer has come to expect in this situation. This produces tension and stress because this deviation can be threatening. The viewer physiologically becomes energized, and he starts to develop the emotions of fear or anger, depending on his perception of the deviation. He concentrates and further analyzes the situation, which demands more psychic energy. Suddenly, there is a new change in the pattern that allows the viewer to interpret the situation as non-threatening. There is no longer a need for the energy that he has been accumulating. He then releases this energy in laughter. The greater the perceived threat, the greater is the accumulated energy, and the gre
ater the outburst of laughter when this energy is finally released.
HUMOROUS DIALOGUE
Humorous dialogue consists of linguistic and logical structures that produce laughter. They are different from humorous situations, which deal with objects, events, actions, and their relationships that produce laughter, and humorous characters whose behavior patterns involve some incongruity that causes people to laugh.
In this section, we will present some of the constructions of language that tend to generate laughter. John Allen Paulos, in Mathematics and Humor, states
Logic, pattern, rules, structure-all these are essential
to both mathematics and humor, although of course the emphasis is different in the two. In humor the logic is often inverted, patterns are distorted, rules are misunderstood, and structures are confused. Yet these transformations
are not random and must make sense on some level. Understanding the "correct" logic, pattern, rule, or structure is essential to understanding what is incongruous in a given story-to “ getting the joke.”