1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created

by Charles C. Mann

  63 U.S. maroons: Sayers et al. 2007 (Great Dismal Swamp); Franklin and Schweninger 2001:86 (thousands in swamp); Aptheker 1996.

  64 Black and Red Seminoles: Landers (2002, 1999 [creation of Mosé, 29–60]) has written superbly on the rise of African Florida. Riordan (1996; relations with Creeks, 27–29) and Mulroy (1993; 4 towns, 294) are fine short summaries.

  65 Seminole Wars: The wars are far more complex than can be indicated here, and almost everything about them is subject to argument. For example, the owners of escaped slaves objected to the “capitulation,” and Jesup promised not to include recently escaped slaves in the terms, which some have argued rendered the agreement tantamount to a true surrender. Others say, convincingly in my view, that the promise was meaningless because the slaves could not effectively be separated.“No matter how mild the system of slavery practiced by the Seminoles, complete freedom was infinitely preferable” (Mulroy 1993:303); “and a half”: Giddings 1858:140–41.

  66 Haiti: The literature on the revolution is vast. In English the classic studies are by C. L. R. James; Dubois (2005) is a good recent study, available in both French and English. Moreau de Saint-Méry (1797–98) is a fascinating first-hand description of St. Domingue on the eve of revolution. In emphasizing the role of disease, I follow McNeill 2010:236–65 (“graves,” 245; “earthworms,” 253). See also Davis 2006:chap. 8.

  67 Suriname Africans: Price 2011:chap. 1 (25:1, 10), 2002; www.slavevoyages.org (300,000). The U.S. estimate is about 390,000.

  68 A. darlingi and deforestation: Yasuoka and Levins 2007:453–55; Tadei et al. 1998:333.

  69 Suriname maroon wars and treaty: Ngwenyama 2007:59–69; Price 2002:51–52, 167–81; Bilby 1997:667–69 (blood).

  70 Stedman: Stedman 2010 (seasoning, 1:102–03; “numerous,” candles, 46; impossible to see people, 393; “acquaintances,” 100; killed 38, 127; “health,” 607). Stedman observed the advantages of acquired immunity: “amongst the Officers & Private men who had formerly been in the West indies, none died at all, while amongst the whole number of near 1200 together I Can only Recollect one Single marine who Escaped from Sickness” (607).

  71 Logging, mining and park: tacoba.cimc.com/en/enterprise/tacoba/tacoba.cimc.com/en/enterprise/tacoba/ (CIMC website); whc.unesco.org/en/list/1017 (World Heritage site description); Price 2011 (park, 136–40); Alons and Mol eds. 2007:64 (40 percent); Anon. 1998.

  72 Maroon population size: Price 2002b.

  73 Lack of consultation and IACHR case: Price 2011 (filing petition, 119; Kwinti and park, 136–40). At the time of writing, many legal filings were available at www.forestpeoples.org.

  74 Mazagão Velho: Author’s visit, interviews; Vidal 2005 (African history of town); Motinha 2005 (inability to repair, 12; abandonment, 25–26); Silva and Tavim 2005:2 (town design); Anderson 1999:28 (1,900).

  75 Amazon land rush: This section is adapted from Hecht and Mann 2008.

  76 Mojú: Author’s visit; author’s interviews, Manuel Almeida (Quilombolas Jambuaçu), anonymous informants; Anon. 2006.

  CHAPTER 10 / In Bulalacao

  1 “Bahay Kubo”: The plants are singkamas (jícama; Pachyrrhizus erosus); talong (eggplant; Solanum melongena); sigarilyas (asparagus/winged bean, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus); mani (peanut, Archis hypogaea); sitaw (string/yard-long bean, Vigna spp.); patani (lima/butter bean, Phaseolus lunatus); bataw (hyacinth bean, Lablab purpurea); kundol (winter melon, Benincasa hispida); patola (sponge gourd, Luffa cylindrica and acutangula); upo (wax gourd, Legenaria siceraria); kalabasa (kabocha-style squash, Cucurbita maxima); labanus (radish, Raphanus sativus); mustaza (mustard, Brassica juncea); sibuyas (onion, Allium cepa); kamatis (tomato, Lycopersicum lycopersicum); bawang (garlic, Allium sativum); luya (ginger, Zingiber officinale); lain linga (sesame, Sesamum orientale). My thanks to Leonard Co for the botanical identification and translation.

  2 Impacts of Philippines exotic species: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines) and World Fish Center 2006; Lowe et al. 2004 (seven worst invasives).

  3 Philippine mahogany: 16 CFR §250.3 (Federal Trade Commission rule, available at: edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2001/janqtr/pdf/16cfr250.2.pdf).

  4 Ifugao as landmark: In 1996 the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization saluted the area as a “priceless contribution of Philippine ancestors to humanity” and made it a World Heritage Site (whc.unesco.org/en/list/722). Ifugao is also an international engineering landmark of the American Society of Civil Engineers.

  5 Apple snail: Joshi 2005; Caguano and Joshi 2002.

  6 500 varieties: Nozawa et al. 2008; Concepcion et al. 2005.

  7 Nine new earthworm species: Hong and James 2008; Hendrix et al. 2008:601–02.

  8 “their maximum”: Quoted in Maher 1973:41.

  9 Keesing: Keesing 1962:319 (“innovation”), 322–23 (“mention”).

  10 First archaeological studies: Acabado 2009; Maher 1972.

  11 Five months: Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement 2008:3.

  12 Sweet potato in Ifugao: Brosius 1988:97–98; Scott 1958:92–93.

  13 Eighth Wonder: Author’s interviews, Manila, Ifugao; Harrington 2010; Dumlao 2009. See also the project website at heirloomrice.com, esp. for the annual reports of the Revitalize Indigenous Cordilleran Entrepreneurs, the Filipino side of the project.

  14 Mangyan language, culture: Postma ed. 2005.

  15 Trade with China: Scott 1984:65–73; Horsley 1950:74–75.

  APPENDIXES

  1 Negro and preto: Heywood and Thornton 2007:chap. 6.

  2 Zaytun in its heyday: Abu-Lughod 1991:212, 335–36, 350 (population); Clark 1990:46–58; Pearson et al. 2001:187–90, 204–05 (sediment, 190); Polo 2001:211–13 (“profit,” 211); Ibn Battuta 1853–58:v. 4, 269–71 (“past counting,” 269); Odoric of Pordenone (Hakluyt Goldsmid ed. 1889:vol.9, 133–34) (monks).

  3 Pu Shougeng: So 2000:107–22, 301–05; Chen 1983; Kuwabara 1935 (betrayal and siege, 38–40).

  4 Islam in Zaytun: Interviews, Ding Yuling, Lin Renchuan; Jin 1982 (translations, intelligibility); Kuwabara 1935:esp. 102–03; Chen 1983 (converts, syncretism, factions). My thanks to Dr. Ding for arranging a tour of Quanzhou’s Maritime Museum, of which she is the director.

  5 Collapse of Zaytun: Interview, Ding Yuling; Chen 1983; Lin 1990:169 (silting); So 2000:122–29.

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