45. Ibid.
46. The British called their program Oldster. See Alistair Horne, Macmillan, 1957–1986, (London: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 225–26.
47. Interrogation of Francis Gary Powers, May 8 and May 10, 1960, Central Archive, FSB; Powers, op. cit., p. 133.
48. Beschloss, op. cit., p. 262.
49. Khrushchev describes his strategy in Talbott, ed., op. cit., pp. 446–47. Excerpts from Khrushchev’s statements at the informal press conference in Gorky Park appeared in the New York Times, May 12, 1960. Soviet censors tried to tone down these comments about Eisenhower. Beschloss, op. cit., p. 263.
50. Taubman, op. cit., cites Sergei Khrushchev, p. 459.
51. “The Presidium of the CC of the CPSU to the October Plenum of the CC of the CPSU,” “Not Later than 14 October 1964” (draft), RGANI.
52. Extract from Protocol 280, May 12, 1960, 3-64-737, APRF, pp. 1–79. Besides Khrushchev the official delegation included Gromyko, Malinovsky, V. V. Kuznetsov, V. A. Zorin, S. A. Vinogradov, A. A. Soldatov, M. A. Melnikov, G. A. Zhukov, L. F. Ilichev, P. A. Satyukov, A. I. Adzhubei, G. G. Shuisky, V. S. Lebedev, O. A. Troyanovsky, A. F. Dobrynin, V. F. Grubyakov, A. A. Krochin, Colonel General A. A. Gryzlov, and S. M. Kudryavstev.
53. Extract from Protocol 280, May 12, 1960, 4-64-737, APRF.
54. Ibid.
55. Telcon, Paris and SecState, May 13, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 9, pp. 395–79; memcon, heads of government meeting, May 15, 1960, ibid., p. 418.
56. Memcon, with President Eisenhower, May 15, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 9, p. 415; memcon, foreign ministers’ meeting on disarmament, April 13, 1960, ibid., p. 318.
57. Dwight Eisenhower, op. cit., p. 553.
58. Tom Wicker, Dwight D. Eisenhower (New York: Times Boots, 2002), p. 80.
59. DDE, president’s news conference on May 11, 1960, Public Papers of the Presidents, Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1960–1961 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1961), pp. 403–14.
60. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 447.
61. Oleg Troyanovsky, “The Foreign Policy of Nikita S. Khrushchev.” Taubman, op. cit., p. 460. Khrushchev recalled making this decision on the plane, not in the airport before the flight. Talbott, op. cit., pp. 450–51. This difference is minor. What matters is that he made it after the May 12 meeting, and this required long-distance approval from the Presidium on May 14.
62. NSK (Paris) to CC, May 14, 1960. The cable was five pages long. 3-64-738, APRF.
63. Oleg Troyanovsky, Cherez gody rasstoianiia [At Year’s Distance] (Moscow: Vagrius, 1997), p. 226.
64. These conditions appeared in Khrushchev’s formal statement. See New York Times, May 17, 1960.
65. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 452.
66. Ibid.
67. Steno, February 1, 1960, AOK.
68. The French record for the May 15, 1960, meeting between de Gaulle ans Khrushchev (11:30 A.M. to 12:45 P.M.) is in DDF, 1960 (Paris: Imprimarie Nationale 1995), vol. 1, record 221, document II, pp. 645–48, The Russian record is in 3-64-738, pp. 33–43, APRF.
69. Memcon, Khrushchev with Macmillan, May 15, 1960, 3-64-738, APRF.
70. Memcon, May 15, 1960, 2:30 P.M., FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 9, pp. 417–22. Memcon, May 15, 1960, 6:00 P.M., ibid., pp. 426–35.
71. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 454.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid., pp. 454–55.
74. Khrushchev told this story to Averell Harriman, who repeated to John F. Kennedy in 1962. Harriman told JFK that Bohlen had denied this had ever happened. See Timothy Naftali, ed., Presidential Recordings: John F. Kennedy, vol. 1, The Great Crises (New York: Norton, 2001). August 8, 1962, Meeting on China and the Congo, pp. 280–81. In Waging Peace, Eisenhower makes no mention of his even considering an apology.
75. Protocol 121, October 26, 1957, AOK.
76. Khrushchev to the CC, May 16, 1960, 3-64-738, APRF.
77. Memcon, Khrushchev and Macmillan, 2100 hours, May 16, 1960, ibid.
78. Ibid., p. 101.
79. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 458.
80. Curiously, Khrushchev’s memoirs do not mention his being in the embassy in the afternoon or sending a cable to Moscow. In Ibid., p. 459, he speaks of returning to Paris in the evening.
81. Khrushchev to the CC, May 17, 1960, 3-64-738, APRF.
82. Memcon, May 17, 1960, 3:00 P.M., FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 9, p. 468.
83. Quoted in Horne, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 228.
84. Transcript of Powers interrogation, June 10, 1960, FSB.
85. Thompson discussed these theories with the New York Times correspondent C. L. Sulzberger before leaving Paris. C. L. Sulzberger, The Last of the Giants (New York: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 669–70.
86. DDE to Lleras Camargo, May 19, 1960, No. 1541, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 20, The Presidency: Keeping the Peace, ed. Louis Galambos and Daun Van Ee (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001).
87. Editorial note, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, part 1, pp. 540–42.
88. Pedlow and Welzenbach, op. cit., pp. 184–87.
89. [Soviet Union], “Basic Provisions of a Treaty on General and Complete Disarmament,” submitted to the Geneva Conference on June 7, 1960, Documents on International Affairs, 1960, ed. Richard Gott, John Major and Geoffrey Warner (London: Oxford University Press, 1961),
CHAPTER 12: CASTRO AND LUMUMBA
1. The Presidium approved the Friendship University plan on February 5, 1960, RGANI, Fond 4, Opis 16, Dela 783, pp. 12–15, cited in A. B. Davidson and S. V. Mazov, eds., Rossiia i Afrika: dokumenty i materialy VIII v.—1960 g. [Russia and Africa: Documents and Materials 18th century—1960], vol. 2, p. 313. To ensure that this school not be considered a ghetto for Africans, the Soviets decided that 20 to 30 percent of the student body would include Soviet citizens or individuals from other countries in the socialist bloc. V. P. Yeliotin, minister of special higher and middle-level education in the USSR, and S. M. Rumyantsev, rector of the Friendship University, to NSK, April 12, 1960, ibid., pp. 312–13.
2. Alvin Z. Rubinstein, “Friendship University,” Soviet Survey: A Quarterly Review of Cultural Trends, no. 34 (October–December 1960), pp. 8–10.
3. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), p. 317.
4. Rubinstein, op. cit., pp. 8–10.
5. NSK to Nasser, April 12, 1959, 0507, MFA.
6. Memcon, NSK and el-Kouni, May 22, 1959, 52-1-561, APRF.
7. Meeting, Zaitsev and Mahdavi, February 18, 1960, MFA. In 1959 Gromyko described Mahdavi as “one of the most prominent progressive statesmen” in Iraq. Mahdavi’s children were studying in the Soviet Union, and in August 1959 he asked to visit the USSR for rest and some medical care. The Soviets checked with a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of Iraq who liked the idea of Mahdavi’s going to the Soviet Union. The Presidium approved the visit on August 26, 1959. See Gromyko to CC, August 24, 1959, 24/22/12, p. 41, MFA, with a marginal note about the Presidium’s approval.
8. Meeting, Zaitsev and Mahdavi, February 18, 1960, MFA.
9. Ibid.
10. Excerpt from Protocol 274, Presidium Meeting of April 7, 1960, “Aide-Mémoire for A. I. Mikoyan for his meeting with A. K. Qasim,” APRF.
11. Mikoyan encountered a difficult Qasim when the Iraqis finally allowed him to visit in early April. When Mikoyan complained about the treatment of Iraqi Communists, many of whom were in jail facing the death penalty, Qasim brushed him off: “This is an internal matter.” Meeting, Mikoyan and Qasim, April 14, 1960, APRF.
12. Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., report by Soviet Ambassador Gerasimov on Trip to Guinea, December 1–13, and December 20, 1958, Document 123.
13. Extract from Protocol 198, Presidium meeting of December 27, 1958, Folio 3, List 65, File 871, APRF. Details of the covert operation comes from a memorandum of the same date that was distributed at the meeting and is the file alongside the extract.
14. Fursenko interview in 199
5 with veteran of the Soviet military intelligence service, the GRU, who described Raúl Castro’s recruitment by Raúl Valdes Vivo, the head of the youth wing of the PSP.
15. Naftali interview with Vilma Espín, wife of Raúl Castro, Havana, October 2002. Ms. Espin spoke of her husband as having joined the party and not just the youth wing.
16. Anibal Escalante to CC, April 3, 1962, Folio 3, List 65, File 903, pp. 39–42, APRF. Escalante, a longtime and high-level PSP leader, told the Soviets how Fidel Castro “learned” of Raúl Castro’s and Che Guevara’s hitherto secret memberships in the PSP at a stormy meeting in March 1962. A year later the KGB repeated this version of events in its general study of Fidel Castro prepared on the eve of his first visit to the USSR. Semichastny to CC, April 25, 1963, “Spravka on Fidel Castro,” File 88497, vol. 1, pp. 361–75, SVR. Raúl Castro’s best friend in the KGB, Nikolai Leonov, however, believed that the Kremlin knew that Escalante did not have the full story. He recalled Fidel’s knowing that Raúl was a Communist. He endorsed the spirit of Espín’s version, though he doubted Raúl had had time to join the PSP (as opposed to just the youth wing) before the Castros led an attack in 1953 on the Cuban Army’s Moncada barracks, were jailed and then exiled to Mexico. Naftali interview with Leonov, Havana, October 2002.
17. Anibal Escalante to CC, April 3, 1962, Folio 3, List 65, File 903, pp. 39–42, APRF.
18. Ponomarev and Mukhitdinov to CC, April 15, 1959, Folio 3, List 65, File 874, APRF.
19. Resolution, Presidium, Protocol 214, April 23, 1959, Folio 3, List 65, File 871, APRF.
20. Kobanov (International Department of the CC) to the CC, September 30, 1959, Folio 3, List 65, File 874, p. 16, APRF.
21. Fursenko interview with Aleksandr Alekseyev, February 16, 1994.
22. Resolution, Presidium, January 29, 1960, APRF. This may have been from Protocol 261 or 261. This decision is not noted in the Malin note for either protocol.
23. Mikoyan cited in Max Frankel, High Noon in the Cold War: Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Presidio Press, 2004), p. 63.
24. Fursenko interview with Alekseyev, February 16, 1994.
25. Cable, Alekseyev (Havana) to Center, February 7, 1960, File 78825, pp. 108–12, SVR.
26. In January 1959, the general secretary of the Communist Party of Belgium, while attending the Twenty-first Party Congress in Moscow, discussed with Soviet officials the possibility of sending Congolese students to Moscow.
27. Memcon, meeting with Patrice Lumumba, Soviet Ambassador to Guinea P. I. Gerasimov, April 28, 1959, APRF, Fond 0590, 1/1/1, in Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., Document 135.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid.
30. Memcon, meeting with “De Coninck on the Situation in the Congo,” B. A. Kavinov, first secretary of Soviet Embassy in Brussels, April 27, 1959, in Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., Document 136.
31. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of a Continent (New York: Vintage Books, 1997), p. 651.
32. Ibid., pp. 637, 651.
33. Memcon with Pierre Muhlele, Antoine Kingotolo, and Rafael Kinki, December 28, 1959, Davidson and Mazov, op. cit., Document 137.
34. Memcon, Savinov and De Coninck, April 27, 1959. Ibid., Document 136.
35. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 5–10.
36. Jeffrey J. Safford, “The Nixon-Castro Meeting of 19 April 1959,” Diplomatic History, 4 (1980), pp. 426–31.
37. Memorandum for the president, November 5, 1959, Bay of Pigs Collection, National Security Archive.
38. J. C. King, chief, Western Hemisphere Division, to Dulles, December 11, 1959, Bay of Pigs Collection, National Security Archive. The document carries the notation that Dulles approved the proposal the next day.
39. Memcon, Burden and Lumumba, February 25, 1960, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1958–1960 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992), vol. 14, p. 263.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Alekseyev (Havana) to CC, March 8, 1960, File 78825, pp. 164–66, SVR. Khrushchev received a copy of this report. It appears in Folio 3, List 65, File 871, pp. 42–45, APRF.
43. Memcon, March 7, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 6, p. 823.
44. Protocol 270, March 12, 1960; CC to Alekseyev, March 12, 1960, Folio 3, List 65, File 871, APRF.
45. A. Sakharovskii, the chief of the KGB’s First Chief Directorate, to Deputy Foreign Minister V. S. Semenov, July 18, 1960, File 84124, vol. 12, SVR.
46. Archive of the Secretariat of the CC, Folio 4, List 16, File 954, p. 169, RGANI.
47. Telegram March 8, 1960, 7:00 P.M., FRUS, vol. 6, pp. 824–25.
48. Editorial note, ibid., pp. 826–27.
49. Memo from Rubottom to SecState, March 9, 1960, “NSC Discussion of Cuba, March 10, 1960,” ibid., p. 829.
50. Memcon, 436th Meeting of the NSC, March 10, 1960, ibid., pp. 832–37.
51. 5412 Committee, “A Program of Covert Action against the Castro Regime,” March 16, 1960, ibid., pp. 850–51.
52. Ibid.
53. U.S. Senate, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, An Interim Report of the Select Committee to Study Government Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, November 20, 1975 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 72.
54. KGB Chief Aleksandr Shelepin to CC, June 18, 1960, File 86447, pp. 319–320, SVR. Paco Ignacio Taibo II, Guevara Also Known as Che, trans. Martin Michael Roberts (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), p. 305
55. Shelepin to CC, June 24, 1960, Folio 3, List 65, File 893, pp. 33–34, APRF.
56. Fursenko and Naftali, op. cit., pp. 49–50.
57. A. Sakharovskii, the chief of the KGB’s First Chief Directorate, to Deputy Foreign Minister V. S. Semenov, July 18, 1960, File 84124, vol. 12, SVR.
58. U.S. State Department, “Principal Soviet Public Statements on Defense of Cuba,” Cuban Missile Crisis Collection, National Security Archive.
59. Memcon, NSK and Raul Castro, July 18, 1960, APRF.
60. Ibid.
61. Fursenko interview with Boris Ponomarev, 1994.
62. Fursenko and Naftali, op. cit., p. 55.
63. Public Papers of the Secretaries-General of the United Nations, vol. 55: 1960–1961, Dag Hammarskjöld, ed. Andrew Cordier and Wilder Foote (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975).
64. Catherine Hoskyns, The Congo since Independence, January 1960–December 1961 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 95–96.
65. Public Papers of the Secretaries-General, vol. 5, p. 19.
66. Davidson and Mazov, op. cit., Document 138.
67. Thomas Hamilton, “U.S. and Soviet Asked to Supply Vehicles and Food for New Unit,” New York Times, July 15, 1960.
68. Seymour Topping, “Khrushchev Tells the West to Keep Its Hands off Congo; Replies to New Republic’s Appeal for Intervention by Soviet If Needed; U.S. Accuses Russian; Says ‘Irresponsible’ Charge Is Part of Current Attempt to Inflame Atmosphere,” New York Times, July 16, 1960. The Russian original is Document 140 in Davidson and Mazov, op. cit.
69. Hoskyns, op. cit., p. 129.
70. Editorial note, FRUS, vol. 14, p. 280.
71. Ibid.
72. Telegram, Timberlake (Leopoldville) to DOS, August 29, 1960, ibid., p. 448.
73. Madeleine G. Kalb, The Congo Cables: The Cold War in Africa—from Eisenhower to Kennedy (New York: Macmillan, 1982), p. 35.
74. Dillon cited ibid., p. 37.
75. Ibid., pp. 36–37.
76. Ibid., pp. 37–41.
77. Ibid., p. 42.
78. NSK to Lumumba, August 5, 1960, Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., Document 141.
79. Gromyko to CC, August 9, 1960, Davidson and Mazov, op. cit., Document 119. The date of Nkrumah’s request is mentioned in the draft text of Khrushchev’s reply, dated August 6, ibid., document 120.
80.
Hoskyns, op. cit., pp. 161–65, 167.
81. Ibid., p. 169.
82. Ibid., pp. 169–70. Kalb, op. cit., p. 44.
83. MID [MFA] to CC, draft letter, August 9, 1960, Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit. Document 120. note 1 indicates that this draft was approved on April 11.
84. Spravka MID SSR [MFA USSR] on the supply of Soviet airplanes to African countries in connection with the provision of assistance to the republic of the Congo (June–August 1960), Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., Document 143.
85. Hoskyns, op. cit., p. 174.
86. Document 191, note 3, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 14, p. 447.
87. Spravka MID SSR [MFA USSR], on the supply of Soviet airplanes to African countries in connection with the provision of assistance to the republic of the Congo (June–August 1960) Davidson and Mazov, eds., op. cit., Document 143.
88. Ibid.
89. Memo from the director of the Bureau of Intelligence and Research to SecState, July 25, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 14, p. 356.
90. Memcon with DDE, August 1, 1960, ibid., p. 377.
91. U.S. Senate, Alleged Assassination Plots, pp. 13–16, 73–74.
92. Memorandum of discussion, 456th Meeting of the NSC, August 18, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 14, p. 424.
93. CJCS (Twining) to SecDef, August 18, 1960, ibid., pp. 425–27.
94. U.S. Senate, Alleged Assassination Plots, p. 73.
95. Ibid.
96. Gerald K. Haines, “CIA History Staff Analysis: CIA and Guatemala Assassination Proposals 1952–1954” (Washington, D.C.: CIA, June 1995).
97. Ibid.
98. U.S. Senate, Alleged Assassination Plots, pp. 74–79.
99. Ibid., p. 60.
100. Editorial note, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 14, p. 443.
101. Telegram, Henry Lodge, Cabot Lodge [New York] to DOS, August 26, 1960, ibid., pp. 444–46.
102. Ibid.
103. Hoskyns, op. cit., pp. 219–21.
104. Ibid.
105. Kalb, op. cit., pp. 71–75.
106. Hoskyns, op. cit., p. 194.
107. Kalb, op. cit., p. 75.
108. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 482.
109. Hoskyns, op. cit., p. 214.
110. Kalb, op. cit., pp. 92–93.
Khrushchev's Cold War Page 81