44. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), p. 372.
45. Ibid.
46. The remarkable story of the Khrushchev family and their rickety Air Force One is told in Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), pp. 328–30.
47. Cited in Hitchcock, The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent, 1995–2002 (New York: Doubleday, 2003), p. 200.
48. Sergei Khrushchev, op. cit., p. 324.
49. Memoir of a member of this security detail, Nixon Library and Birthplace, Yorba Linda, California. The authors are grateful to Irwin Gellman for pointing this document out to them.
50. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 376.
51. Mrs. Llewellyn D. Thompson, [memorandum], RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files 1957–1963, Box 4, NARA II.
52. “Khrushchev Pays Lincoln Homage,” New York Times, September 17, 1959.
53. Memcon, September 15, 1959, POF “USSR-Vienna Meeting, Background Documents, 1953–1961 (c), Reading Material,” Box 126, JFK Library.
54. Henry Cabot Lodge, “Train Trip from Los Angeles to San Francisco,” September 21, 1959, RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files 1957–1963, Box 4, NARA-II. Khrushchev had similar recollections of his reaction to Victor Carter. See Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 385.
55. Hollywood Greets Premier in Star-Studded Welcome,” Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1959.
56. The Café de Paris had been swept with a Geiger counter the day before. The L.A. policeman undertaking the investigation explained, “We’re just checking for ‘hot spots.’ It’s not that we fear an explosion but we’re just taking precautions against the secretion of any radioactive poison that might be designed to harm Khrushchev in his food or drink.” “Film Studio Checked for Any Radiation,” Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1959.
57. “Mme. K Talks Children with Sinatra at Lunch,” Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1959.
58. Ibid.
59. Henry Cabot Lodge, The Storm Has Many Eyes: A Personal Narrative (New York: Norton, 1973), pp. 166–67.
60. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 389.
61. Lodge, op. cit., p. 168.
62. “The Scatology and Ribaldry of N. S. Khrushchev,” December 1959, RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files, 1957–1963, Box 5, NARA-II.
63. Naftali interview with Sandor Vanocur, a journalist on the trip, in March 2001.
64. Talbott, ed., op. cit., p. 390.
65. Roswell Garst to NSK, September 9, 1959, Letters from an American Farmer: The Eastern European and Russian Correspondence of Roswell Garst, ed. Richard Lowitt and Harold Lee (De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), pp. 148–51.
66. Ibid., p. xii.
67. Harold Lee, Roswell Garst: A Biography (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1984), pp. 153–215, passim.
68. Cited in Letters from an American Farmer, loc. cit., p. xiii.
69. Lee, op. cit.,
70. Steno, December 16, 1960; steno, February 16, 1961; steno, April 25, 1963, AOK.
71. Lee, op. cit., p. 219.
72. Steno, December 16, 1960, AOK.
73. Memcon, Lodge, “Train Trip from Los Angeles to San Francisco,” September 21, 1959, RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files, 1957–1963, Box 4, NARA-II.
74. Steno, December 16, 1960, AOK.
75. Henry Cabot Lodge, “Car Trip to Garst Farm,” September 23, 1959, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, pp. 442–43.
76. Mrs. Llewellyn Thompson (memorandum), RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files 1957–1963, Box 4, NARA-II.
77. Eisenhower and Khrushchev meetings, September 26, 1959, 9:20 A.M., 1:00 P.M.; September 27, 1959, 11:45 A.M., POF, “USSR—Vienna Meeting, Background Documents 1953–1961 (c) Reading Material,” Box 126, JFK Library.
78. Talbott, op. cit., p. 412.
79. Thompson to Foy Kohler, “Observations Gained during My Tour of the United States with Chairman Khrushchev,” September 28, 1959, RG 59, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Subject Files 1957–1963, Box 4, NARA-II.
80. Peregovory N. S. Khrushcheva s Mao Tszedunom 31 Iulia–3 Avgusta 1958 i 2 Oktiabria 1959 [“N. S. Khrushchev’s Conversations with Mao Zedong, July 31–August 3, 1959,” and October 2, 1959”], Novaya i noveishaia Istoriia no. 2. (2001).
81. Protocol 240, September 25, 1959, and Protocol 242, October 2, 1959, AOK.
CHAPTER 10: GRAND DESIGN
1. Nikita S. Khrushchev, “Speech by N. S. Khrushchev, Moscow Airport, September 28, 1959,” Khrushchev in America: Full texts of the Speeches Made by N. S. Khrushchev on His Tour of the United States, September 15–27, 1959 (New York: Crosscurrents Press, 1960), pp. 228–31.
2. Meeting with a group of U.S. businessmen, September 24, 1959, reproduced ibid., p. 182.
3. Matthew Evangelista, “Why Keep Such an Army?: Khrushchev’s Troop Reductions,” Working Paper 19, CWIHP Bulletin, December 1997, pp. 25–26. Evangelista cites the estimates of Jutta Tiedtke.
4. Steno, December 16, 1960, AOK.
5. Ibid.
6. Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 281.
7. Meeting, NSK with Nasser, May 14, 1958, 52-1-561, APRF.
8. Khrushchev, op. cit., pp. 282–83.
9. Ibid., pp. 280–82.
10. Pravda, May 29, 1960, cited in Evangelista, op. cit., p. 39.
11. NSK memo to CC, CPSU Presidium, December 8, 1959, trans. Vladislav Zubok, in CWIHP Bulletin, Winter 1996–1997.
12. Steno, “Discussion at the Session of the Presidium of the CC Regarding the Question of the Party Program,” December 14, 1959, AOK.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid. Khrushchev’s statements met with an enthusiastic response. Mikoyan, Aristov, and Koslov understood that there was no real threat to their jobs. They appreciated, however, Khrushchev’s call for additional emphasis on social services and individual standards of living.
17. The stenographer did not stay for the military discussion, “Regarding further steps with regard to the struggle for relaxing international tension.” Malin, however, did produce minutes for this discussion. Protocol 253, December 14, 1959, AOK.
18. The only quibble was a comment by Malinovsky that the Soviet force in East Germany be exempt from the cuts. “Our forces there,” argued the marshal, “effect a significant amount of influence on our adversaries.”
19. At the time Moskalenko was military commander of the Moscow Military District.
20. Protocol 253, December 14, 1959, AOK.
21. NSK, memo to CC, CPSU Presidium, December 8, 1959, trans. Vladislav Zubok, CWIHP Bulletin, Winter 1996–1997.
22. The Presidium decided that Khrushchev’s memorandum of December 8 would be read to all military commanders on December 18.
23. Protocol 253, December 14, 1959 AOK.
24. Gregory W. Pedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach [CIA History Staff] The CIA and the U-2 Program, 1954–1974 (Washington, D.C.: Center of the Study of Intelligence, CIA, 1998), p. 160.
25. Ibid., p. 164.
26. Memcon, Eisenhower meeting with McNamara, Dulles, and Lemnitzer, July 15, 1961, Memoranda of Conferences (1961–1963), Post-Presidential, Augusta-Walter Reed Series, Box 2, DDE Library.
27. On February 2, 1959, the CIA sent the president a briefing on the seven-year plan. Two days later, the president’s son, John, called the CIA to say that the president had read the memorandum with “a great deal of interest,” Document 9-0693, Allen W. Dulles Collection, Holland-Freedom of Information Act.
28. Ibid. For two years, analysts working in the usually unrewarding area of manpower studies, had been warning their superiors that the Kremlin did not have the labor force required to meet the seven-year plan objectives. See CD-ROM supplement to
Gerald K. Haines and Robert E. Leggett, eds. (Washington, D.C.: Center for the Study of Intelligence, CIA, 2001). [CIA History Staff] CIA’s Analysis of the Soviet Union 1947–1991. What the CIA did not know was that the Kremlin colleagues had been discussing a plan to reduce the number of hours that Soviets had to work per week, making the manpower shortage an even more significant political issue for Moscow.
29. Joseph Alsop to Lucius Clay, February 28, 1959, “General Correspondence,” Box 15, Joseph and Stewart Alsop Papers, Library of Congress.
30. “Truman Would Not Have Dared Invite Stalin, Symington Says,” New York Times, September 28, 1959.
31. Wayne A. Jackson, “Allen Walsh Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence, 26 February 1953–29 November 1961,” vol. 5, Intelligence Support for Policy, unpublished CIA history, July 1973, declassified 1994, p. 70.
32. Ibid.
33. “The Great Debate over to Adequacy of Our Defense,” New York Times, February 7, 1960.
34. “United States Military and Diplomatic Policies—Preparing for the Gap,” Congressional Record, August 14, 1958, Pre-Presidential Papers, “60 Campaign—Press & Publicity,” “Defense + Disarmament, Missile Gap,” Box 1029, JFK Library.
35. Jackson, op. cit., vol. 5, p. 62.
36. Jackson, op. cit., vol. 5, p. 70.
37. Memcon, 432rd Meeting of the NSC, January 14, 1960, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1958–1960, vol. 10, pp. 498–99.
38. Ibid.
39. Discussion at the 433rd Meeting of the NSC Thursday, January 21, 1960, NSP Fiche 249/1, FRUS, supplement, Document 235.
40. Ibid., vol. 5, p. 94.
41. Ibid.
42. Russell Porter, “S.A.C. Chief Urges Defense Speed-up,” New York Times, January 20, 1960.
43. “The Great Debate over the Adequacy of Our Defense,” New York Times, February 7, 1960.
44. Joseph Alsop, “The Missile Gap: Basic Facts,” New York Herald Tribune, January 25, 1960, “Alsop” File, RMN, NARA-LN.
45. Joseph Alsop, The Missile Gap: The Bridge,” January 25, 1960, New York Herald Tribune, ibid.
46. Steno, February 1, 1960, AOK.
47. Ibid.
48. Khrushchev explicitly contrasted the spirit of this approach with the tactics of his fallen nemesis Vyacheslav Molotov, who had been fond of trying to trap the West into bad propaganda positions by making proposals that the Kremlin never intended to accept. To drive home how different a negotiator he was, Khrushchev reminded the Presidium of how Molotov used to insist publicly on all-German elections.
49. Memcon, DDE and Herter, February 2, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 3, p. 834.
50. Memorandum of discussion, NSC meeting, February 18, 1960, ibid., p. 840.
51. “Transcript of Eisenhower’s News Conference on Domestic and Foreign Matters,” New York Times, February 4, 1960.
52. Lodge (Moscow) to SecState, February 9, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, pp. 507–9.
53. See “Entretiens de Général de Gaulle et M. Khrouchtchev,” March 23–25, and April 1–2, 1960, Documents Diplomatiques Français [hereafter DDF], 1960, (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1995), vol. 1, record no. 146.
54. Memcons, Macmillan and de Gaulle, 6:00 P.M., April 5, 1960, and 9:45 A.M., April 6, 1960 (with their foreign ministers present), Prem 11/3001, National Archives—UK. The British Foreign Office distilled de Gaulle’s depiction of his talks with Khrushchev into a “top secret” report, “Khrushchev’s visit to France,” which presumably became the basis for briefing the Americans, [undated], Prem 11/3001, National Archives—UK.
55. Memcon, Macmillan and de Gaulle, 6:00 P.M., April 5, 1960, Prem 11/3001, National Archives—UK.
56. Ibid.
57. Jackson, op. cit., vol. 5, pp. 88–89.
58. Pedlow and Welzenbach, op. cit., pp. 170–72.
59. Ibid., p. 167.
60. Ibid.
61. Memcon, DDE and Macmillan, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 9, pp. 258–62.
62. In his memoirs, Bissell fudges the presidential instruction, so that it appears he was authorized to carry out a U-2 mission with the sole restriction that “no operation [was] to be carried out after May 1.” Richard M. Bissell, Jr., with Jonathan E. Lewis and Frances T. Pudlo, Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 125.
CHAPTER 11: THE CRASH HEARD ROUND THE WORLD
1. Protocols of witness statements: P. E. Asabin, May 2; V. N. Glinskich, May 3; M. N. Berman, May 4; V. P. Pankov, May 17; I. A. Ananyev, May 17, 1960, Central Archive, FSB.
2. Ibid.
3. This account is based on protocols of witness statements: P. E. Asabin, May 2; V. N. Glinskich, May 3; M. N. Berman, May 4; V. P. Pankov, May 17; I. A. Ananyev, May 17, 1960, Central Archive, FSB, and on Francis Gary Powers recollections, See Operation Overflight (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp. 89–90.
4. Ibid. Also, Michael Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev and the U-2 Affair (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), p. 15.
5. Strobe Talbott, ed., Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), p. 443.
6. Gregory W. Dedlow and Donald E. Welzenbach, p. 176. Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 368.
7. Sergei Khrushchev, op. cit., p. 369.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., p. 370.
10. Ibid., pp. 379–80.
11. Richard M. Bissell, Jr., with Jonathan E. Lewis and Frances T. Pudlo, Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), p. 127.
12. Pedlow and Welzenbach, op. cit., pp. 89–90.
13. Ibid., p. 80.
14. Ibid.
15. Powers, op. cit., p. 99.
16. CIA, Operations Policy Letter No. 6, December 9, 1957, Attachment C to CIA, Report of the Board of Inquiry into the Case of Francis Gary Powers, February 27, 1962, CIA Electronic Reading Room [hereafter ERR], www.ucia.gov (accessed February 20, 2006).
17. Protocol of Interrogation of Francis Gary Powers, May 1, 1960, Central Archive, FSB.
18. CIA, Report of the Board of Inquiry into the Case of Francis Gary Powers, February 27, 1962, CIA ERR, www.ucia.gov (accessed February 20, 2006).
19. Powers recalled warning the Soviets about the needle at his first interrogation in Moscow. Powers, op. cit., p. 102.
20. On May 2, after a less rigorous interrogation, Powers’s captors gave him a car tour of some of Moscow. Ibid., pp. 107–8.
21. Pedlow and Welzenbach, op. cit., p. 176.
22. Beschloss, op. cit., p. 39.
23. There is a brief discussion of the tax plan in Protocol 266, February 25, 1960, AOK, but the best summary of Khrushchev’s May 5 plan is in William J. Thompson, Khrushchev: A Political Life (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1997), p. 222.
24. The letter was dated March 5, 1960. See Protocol 274, April 7, 1960, AOK.
25. Ibid. The Presidium session was on April 7.
26. This description of the event is derived from the discussion of the incident at the Presidium session of April 15, 1960. Protocol 275, AOK.
27. Voroshilov made this comment at the Presidium session of April 28, 1960. Protocol 277, AOK. At this meeting he also attacked the policy of granting incentives to encourage the recycling of scrap metal, calling it a gross mistake. Since the beginning of the year, Voroshilov had increased his attacks on Khrushchev. In January he had taken aim at the new residential construction, widely associated with Khrushchev, describing it as unpopular with the citizens because it was of such low quality. Protocol 259, January 13, 1960. In February, during a trip to India, Voroshilov made no attempt to hide his contempt for the Soviet Foreign Ministry. He publicly called Deputy Foreign Minister Kuznetsov a bootlicker, and he also managed to offend his Indian hosts by spitting as he left a burial vault. During the same trip he happily flouted Presidium protocol. During a d
iplomatic reception he went over and talked with the Chinese ambassador without prior authorization from his colleagues in the Kremlin. Protocol 263, February 9, 1960, AOK.
28. William Taubman, Khrushchev (New York: Norton, 2003), p. 449.
29. Memcon, NSK and Dejean, May 3, 1960, 4-64-736, APRF.
30. There are two reports on the important Khrushchev and Dejean conversation of May 3. The French version is dated May 4, 1960, in Documents Diplomatiques Français [hereafter DDF], 1960 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1995), vol. 1, record 198; the Soviet version is dated May 3 and is in 4-64-736, APRF.
31. Charles de Gaulle to Nikita Khrushchev, April 30, 1960, DDF, vol. 1, record 191.
32. Osgood Caruthers, “Premier Is Bitter,” New York Times, May 6, 1960.
33. Ibid.
34. Protocol, May 4, 1960, AOK.
35. Editorial note, Foreign Relations of the United States [hereafter FRUS], 1958–1960, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1953), vol. 10, part 1, p. 511. Sergei Khrushchev, op. cit., p. 382.
36. Editorial note, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, part 1, p. 511.
37. Ibid., pp. 510–11.
38. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Waging Peace, 1956–1961: The White House Years (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1965), p. 549.
39. Ibid.
40. Protocol of interrogation of Francis Gary Powers, May 6, 1960, Central Archive, FSB.
41. Ibid.
42. “Excerpts From Premier Khrushchev’s Remarks on U.S. Jet Downed in Soviet,” New York Times, May 8, 1960.
43. Memcon, NSC discussion, May 24, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, part 1, p. 524. In fact that detail had come from a map hidden in the cockpit that survived the crash. Powers had not even known about that map. CIA, Report of the Board of Inquiry into the Case of Francis Gary Powers, February 27, 1962, FOIA, ERR. This characterization of Powers persisted in the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations, causing Allen Dulles’s successor as DCI, John McCone, to resist efforts to rehabilitate Powers. In February 1962 an internal CIA review found that Powers had followed orders and done nothing wrong under Soviet interrogation. The Soviet-era records reviewed for this book not only confirm this but reveal how Powers cleverly deceived his interrogators to protect both national security and his own skin.
44. Thompson to SecState, May 7, 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 10, part 1, p. 515.
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