What Intelligence Tests Miss

by Keith E Stanovich

  Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005). Working memory capacity and fluid intelligence are strongly related constructs: Comment on Ackerman, Beier, and Boyle (2005). Psychological Bulletin, 131, 66–71.

  Kane, M. J., Hambrick, D. Z., Tuholski, S. W., Wilhelm, O., Payne, T., & Engle, R. W. (2004). The generality of working memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 189–217.

  Kardash, C. M., & Scholes, R. J. (1996). Effects of pre-existing beliefs, epistemological beliefs, and need for cognition on interpretation of controversial issues. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 260–271.

  Kaufman, J. S. (2001). WAIs-III IQs, Horn’s theory, and generational changes from young adulthood to old age. Intelligence, 29, 131–167.

  Keating, D. P. (1978). A search for social intelligence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 218–223.

  Keating, D. P. (1990). Charting pathways to the development of expertise. Educational Psychologist, 25, 243–267.

  Kelman, M., & Lester, G. (1997). Jumping the queue: An inquiry into the legal treatment of students with learning disabilities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

  Kermer, D. A., Driver-Linn, E., Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2006). Loss aversion is an affective forecasting error. Psychological Science, 17, 649–653.

  Kern, L., & Doherty, M. E. (1982). “Pseudodiagnosticity” in an idealized medical problem-solving environment. Journal of Medical Education, 57, 100–104.

  Kessler, R. (2004). A matter of character: Inside the White House of George W. Bush. New York: sentinel.

  Khan, U., & Dhar, R. (2007). Where there is a way, is there a will? The effect of future choices on self-control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 277–288.

  Kihlstrom, J. F., & Cantor, N. (2000). Social intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (359–379). New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Kimberg, D. Y., D’Esposito, M., & Farah, M. J. (1998). Cognitive functions in the prefrontal cortex—working memory and executive control. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 185–192.

  King, R. N., & Koehler, D. J. (2000). Illusory correlations in graphological inference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 6, 336–348.

  Kirby, K. N., & Herrnstein, R. J. (1995). Preference reversals due to myopic discounting of delayed reward. Psychological Science, 6, 83–89.

  Kirby, K. N., Winston, G. C., & Santiesteban, M. (2005). Impatience and grades: Delay-discount rates correlate negatively with college GPA. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 213–222.

  Kirkpatrick, L., & Epstein, S. (1992). Cognitive-experiential self-theory and subjective probability: Evidence for two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 534–544.

  Kitcher, P. (1993). The advancement of science. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Klaczynski, P. A. (1997). Bias in adolescents’ everyday reasoning and its relationship with intellectual ability, personal theories, and self-serving motivation. Developmental Psychology, 33, 273–283.

  Klaczynski, P. A. (2001). Analytic and heuristic processing influences on adolescent reasoning and decision making. Child Development, 72, 844–861.

  Klaczynski, P. A., & Gordon, D. H. (1996). Self-serving influences on adolescents’ evaluations of belief-relevant evidence. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 62, 317–339.

  Klaczynski, P. A., Gordon, D. H., & Fauth, J. (1997). Goal-oriented critical reasoning and individual differences in critical reasoning biases. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 470–485.

  Klaczynski, P. A., & Lavallee, K. L. (2005). Domain-specific identity, epistemic regulation, and intellectual ability as predictors of belief-based reasoning: A dual-process perspective. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 92, 1–24.

  Klaczynski, P. A., & Robinson, B. (2000). Personal theories, intellectual ability, and epistemological beliefs: Adult age differences in everyday reasoning tasks. Psychology and Aging, 15, 400–416.

  Klauer, K. C., Stahl, C., & Erdfelder, E. (2007). The abstract selection task: New data and an almost comprehensive model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 688–703.

  Klayman, J., & Ha, Y. (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94, 211–228.

  Klein, G. (1998). Sources of power: How people make decisions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  Klein, P. (1997). Multiplying the problems of intelligence by eight: A critique of Gardner’s theory. Canadian Journal of Education, 22, 377–394.

  Klein, P. (2003). Rethinking the multiplicity of cognitive resources and curricular representations: Alternatives to ‘learning styles’ and ‘multiple intelligences.’ Journal of Curriculum Studies, 35, 45–81.

  Koehler, D. J. (1994). Hypothesis generation and confidence in judgment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 461–469.

  Koehler, D. J., & Harvey, N. (Eds.) (2004). Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making. Oxford: Blackwell.

  Koehler, J. J. (1993). The influence of prior beliefs on scientific judgments of evidence quality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 56, 28–55.

  Kokis, J., Macpherson, R., Toplak, M., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002). Heuristic and analytic processing: Age trends and associations with cognitive ability and cognitive styles. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83, 26–52.

  Koriat, A., Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1980). Reasons for confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 107–118.

  Kornblith, H. (1993). Inductive inference and its natural ground. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  Krantz, D. H. (1981). Improvements in human reasoning and an error in L. J. Cohen’s. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 340–341.

  Krantz, M. (2000, May 26). Stars above! Some investors seeking astrological guidance—really. USA Today.

  Krueger, A. B. (2007). What makes a terrorist: Economics and the roots of terrorism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

  Krueger, J., & Zeiger, J. (1993). Social categorization and the truly false consensus effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 670–680.

  Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1121–1134.

  Kruger, J., Epley, N., Parker, J., & Ng, Z.-W. (2005). Egocentrism over e-mail: Can we communicate as well as we think? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 925–936.

  Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” Psychological Review, 103, 263–283.

  Kuhberger, A. (1998). The influence of framing on risky decisions: A metaanalysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 75, 23–55.

  Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Kuhn, D. (1992). Thinking as argument. Harvard Educational Review, 62, 155–178.

  Kuhn, D. (1993). Connecting scientific and informal reasoning. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 38, 74–103.

  Kuhn, D. (2005). Education for thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

  Kuhn, D. (2007, Feb./March). Jumping to conclusions: Can people be counted on to make sound judgments? Scientific American Mind, 44–51.

  Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S. (2004). Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 148–161.

  Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480–498.

  Kunda, Z. (1999). Social cognition: Making sense of people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  Lagerfeld, S. (2004). The revenge of the ne
rds. Wilson Quarterly, 28(3), 28–34.

  Lakoff, G. (2004). Don’t think of an elephant: Know your values and frame the debate. White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing.

  Lakoff, G. (2007). Thinking points: Communicating our American values and vision. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

  Laland, K. N., & Brown, G. R. (2002). Sense and nonsense: Evolutionary perspectives on human behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Langer, E. J. (1975). The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 311–328.

  Laqueur, W. (2004). The terrorism to come. Policy Review, 126, 49–64.

  Larrick, R. P. (2004). Debiasing. In D. J. Koehler & N. Harvey (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of judgment & decision making (316–337). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

  Larrick, R. P., Burson, K. A., & Soll, J. B. (2007). Social comparison and confidence: When thinking you’re better than average predicts overconfidence (and when it does not). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 102, 76–94.

  LeBoeuf, R. A., & Shafir, E. (2003). Deep thoughts and shallow frames: On the susceptibility to framing effects. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 16, 77–92.

  LeBoeuf, R. A., & Shafir, E. (2005). Decision making. In K. J. Holyoak & R. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning (243–265). New York: Cambridge University Press.

  LeBoeuf, R. A., & Shafir, E. (2006). The long and short of it: Physical anchoring effects. Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 393–406.

  Legrenzi, P., Girotto, V., & Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1993). Focussing in reasoning and decision making. Cognition, 49, 37–66.

  Lehman, D. (1991). Signs of the times: Deconstruction and the fall of Paul de Man. New York: Poseidon Press.

  Lehman, D. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1990). A longitudinal study of the effects of undergraduate training on reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 26, 952–960.

  Lemann, N. (1999). The big test: The secret history of the American meritocracy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

  Lepine, R., Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2005). What makes working memory spans so predictive of high-level cognition? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 165–170.

  Leshowitz, B., Dicerbo, K. E., & Okun, M. A. (2002). Effects of instruction in methodological reasoning on information evaluation. Teaching of Psychology, 29, 5–10.

  Leshowitz, B., Jenkens, K., Heaton, S., & Bough, T. (1993). Fostering critical thinking skills in students with learning disabilities: An instructional program. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 483–490.

  Leslie, A. M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “Theory of Mind.” Psychological Review, 94, 412–426.

  Levelt, W. (1995). Chapters of psychology. In R. L. Solso & D. W. Massaro (Eds.), The science of the mind: 2001 and beyond (184–202). New York: Oxford University Press.

  Levesque, H. J. (1986). Making believers out of computers. Artificial Intelligence, 30, 81–108.

  Levesque, H. J. (1989). Logic and the complexity of reasoning. In R. H. Thomason (Ed.), Philosophical logic and artificial intelligence (73–107). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

  Levin, I. P., Gaeth, G. J., Schreiber, J., & Lauriola, M. (2002). A new look at framing effects: Distribution of effect sizes, individual differences, and independence of types of effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 88, 411–429.

  Levin, I. P., Wasserman, E. A., & Kao, S. F. (1993). Multiple methods of examining biased information use in contingency judgments. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 228–250.

  Liberman, N., & Klar, Y. (1996). Hypothesis testing in Wason’s selection task: Social exchange cheating detection or task understanding. Cognition, 58, 127–156.

  Lichtenstein, S., & Fischhoff, B. (1977). Do those who know more also know more about how much they know? Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 20, 159–183.

  Lichtenstein, S., Fischhoff, B., & Phillips, L. (1982). Calibration and probabilities: The state of the art to 1980. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (306–334). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Lichtenstein, S., & Slovic, P. (Eds.) (2006). The construction of preference. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Lieberman, M. D. (2000). Intuition: A social cognitive neuroscience approach. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 109–137.

  Lieberman, M. D. (2003). Reflexive and reflective judgment processes: A social cognitive neuroscience approach. In J. P. Forgas, K. R. Williams, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), Social judgments: Implicit and explicit processes (44–67). New York: Cambridge University Press.

  Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 53–70.

  Lilienfeld, S. O., & Arkowitz, H. (2007, April). Autism: An epidemic. Scientific American Mind, 82–83.

  Lilienfeld, S. O., Lohr, J. M., & Moirer, D. (2001). The teaching of courses in the science and pseudoscience of psychology: Useful resources. Teaching of Psychology, 28(3), 182–191.

  Lillard, A. (2001). Pretend play as twin Earth: A social-cognitive analysis. Developmental Review, 21, 495–531.

  Lipsitt, L. P. (2003). Crib death: A biobehavioral phenomenon? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 164–170.

  Lipstadt, D. (1994). Denying the Holocaust. New York: Plume.

  Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212–247.

  Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (1991). Negative time preference. American Economic Review, 81, 347–352.

  Loewenstein, G. F. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65, 272–292.

  Loewenstein, G. F., Read, D., & Baumeister, R. (Eds.) (2003). Time and decision: Economic and psychological perspectives on intertemporal choice. New York: Russell Sage.

  Loewenstein, G. F., Weber, E. U., Hsee, C. K., & Welch, N. (2001). Risk as feelings. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 267–286.

  Loftus, E. F., & Guyer, M. J. (2002, May/June). Who abused Jane Doe: The hazards of the single case history. Skeptical Inquirer, 26(3), 24–32.

  Loftus, E. F., & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory: False memories and allegations of sexual abuse. New York: St. Martins.

  Lubinski, D. (2004). Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearman’s (1904) “General Intelligence, Objectively Determined and Measured.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 96–111.

  Luce, R. D., & Raiffa, H. (1957). Games and decisions. New York: Wiley.

  Lumsden, C. J., & Wilson, E. O. (1981). Genes, mind, and culture. Cambridge, MA: harvard University Press.

  Lynch, A. (1996). Thought contagion. New York: Basic Books.

  Macchi, L., & Mosconi, G. (1998). Computational features vs. frequentist phrasing in the base-rate fallacy. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 57, 79–85.

  Macerlean, N. (2002, August 4). Do the sums—it’s in your interest. Observer (London), cash 2–3.

  Mackie, G. (1996). Ending footbinding and infibulation: A convention account. American Sociological Review, 61, 999–1017.

  Macpherson, R., & Stanovich, K. E. (2007). Cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, and instructional set as predictors of critical thinking. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 115–127.

  Malkiel, B. G. (2004). A random walk down Wall Street (8th ed.). New York: Norton.

  Manktelow, K. I. (1999). Reasoning & Thinking. Hove, England: Psychology Press.

  Manktelow, K. I. (2004). Reasoning and rationality: The pure and the practical. In K. I. Manktelow & M. C. Chung (Eds.), Psychology of reasoning: Theoretical and historical perspectives (157–177). Hove, England: Psychology Press.

  Manktelow, K. I., & Chung, M. C. (2004). Psychology of reasoning: Theoretical and historical perspectives. Hove, England:
Psychology Press.

  Marek, P., Jackson, S. L., Griggs, R. A., & Christopher, A. N. (1998). Supplementary books on critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 25, 266–269.

  Margolis, H. (1987). Patterns, thinking, and cognition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Margolis, H. (1996). Dealing with risk. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Markovits, H., & Nantel, G. (1989). The belief-bias effect in the production and evaluation of logical conclusions. Memory & Cognition, 17, 11–17.

  Markowitz, H. M. (1952). The utility of wealth. Journal of Political Economy, 60, 151–158.

  Marks, D. F. (2001). The psychology of the psychic. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.

  Marr, D. (1982). Vision. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.

  Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science & myth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  Maule, J., & Villejoubert, G. (2007). What lies beneath: Reframing framing effects. Thinking and Reasoning, 13, 25–44.

  McCaffery, E. J., & Baron, J. (2004). Framing and taxation: Evaluation of tax policies involving household composition. Journal of Economic Psychology, 25, 679–705.

  McCaffery, E. J., & Baron, J. (2006a). Isolation effects and the neglect of indirect effects of fiscal policies. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19, 289–302.

  McCaffery, E. J., & Baron, J. (2006b). Thinking about tax. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 12, 106–135.

  McCauley, R. N. (2000). The naturalness of religion and the unnaturalness of science. In F. C. Keil & R. A. Wilson (Eds.), Explanation and cognition (61–85). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

  McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, 306, 503–507.

  McDermott, T. (2005). Perfect soldiers: The hijackers—who they were, why they did it. New York: harperCollins.

  McElroy, T., & Seta, J. J. (2003). Framing effects: An analytic-holistic perspective. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 610–617.

  McEvoy, S. P., Stevenson, M. R., McCartt, A. T., Woodword, M., Haworth, C., Palamara, P., & Cercarelli, R. (2005, August 20). Role of mobile phones in motor vehicle crashes resulting in hospital attendance: A case-crossover study. British Medical Journal, 331(7514), 428.