44. Krannhals, Warschauer Aufstand, 104.
45. The term "intellectuals" means no more in this context than the fact that they had received an education of sorts. This gave them a decisive advantage over their foes; Abas Kupi, for instance, was illiterate.
46. Julian Amery, Sons of the Eagle (London, 1948), 53. For an official history of the partisan movement see L. Kasneci, Trempee dans le feu de la lutte (Tirana, 1966). See also U.S. Army Intelligence Division: Resistance Factors and Special Forces Areas, Project No. A-229, Albania (Washington, 1957).
47. Hubatsch, Kriegstagebuch, III,pt. 2,152.
48. A. Kedros, La résistance grecque (Paris, 1966), 237 et seq.; D. George Kousoulas, Revolution and Defeat (London, 1965), 160-169. See also Komninos Pyromaglou, I ethniki antistasis (Athens, 1975), and Heinz Richter, Griechen-land zwischen Revolution und Konterrevolution (1934-1946) (Frankfurt, 1973).
49. Woodhouse, in European Resistance Movements, I,382.
50. Ν. I. Klonis, Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1972), 115.
51. Pyromaglou, in European Resistance Movements (Oxford, 1964), II, 317-318.
52. Zachariades, quoted in Kousoulas, Revolution and Defeat, 206.
53. Macksey,The Partisans of Europe, 191.
54. Henri Noguères, Histoire de la résistance en France (Paris, 1972), III, 162.
55. B. Ehrlich, The French Resistance (London, 1966), 165.
56. From the immense literature on the French resistance and the Maquis, the following special issues of the Revue d'histoire de la deuxième guerre mondiale should be singled out: 1,30,35,47,55,61,85 and 99.
57· The standard works on the Italian resistance after 1943 are those by Valiani (1947), Cadorna (1948), Salvadori (1955), Catalano (1956), Battaglia (1964), Bocca (1966), and the official Communist histories by Secchia-Frascati (1965) and Longo (1965).
58. G. A. Shepperd, The Italian Campaign, 1943-45 (London, 1968), 302; A. Kesselring, Soldat bis zum letzten Tage (Bonn, 1953), 324,330.
59. R. Battaglia, Storia della resistenza Italiana (Turin, 1964), 662.
60. On the major partisan republics see Hubertus Bergwitz, Die Partisanen Republik Ossola (Hanover, 1972); Anne Bravo, La republica partigiana dell'alto Monferrato (Torino, 1965), passim; G. Bocca, Storia dell'Italia partigiana (Bari, 1966), 458-503. For Longo's views on partisan tactics see his Sulla via dell'insurrezione 1943-45 (Rome, 1954), 477-479.
61. Bocca, Italia partigiana, 569.
62. Guido Quazza, La resistenza italiana (Turin, 1966), 114; Bocca, Italia partigiana, 607.
63. Heinz Kuhnrich, Der Partisanenkrieg in Europa 1939-1945 ([East] Berlin, 1968), 536-537·
64. Ibid.
65. The most authoritative Soviet work, Istoria velikoi otechestvennoi voini, III, 446, mentions a total of 120,000 Soviet partisans for 1943, which is lower than the German estimate. See Armstrong, III, 35-36.
66. Marcelle Adler-Bresse, "Témoignages allemandes sur la guerre des partisans," Revue d'histoire de la deuxieme guerre mondiale (January 1964), 54.
67. F. O. Miksche, Secret Forces (London, 1950).
68. Lothar Rendulic, "Der Partisanenkrieg," Bilanz des zweiten Weltkriegs (Oldenburg, 1953), andValdis Redelis, Partisanenkrieg (Heidelberg, 1958).
69. Henri Michel, The Shadow War (London, 1972), 290.
70. S. Hawes and R. White, Resistance in Europe, 1939-1945 (London, 1975), 203.
Chapter Six: the Twentieth Century (III): China and Vietnam
1. Interview in Communist International (February 1938), 177.
2. When General Challe, one of the leaders of the right-wing conspiracy in Algiers, was put on trial he told the judges at great length about the wisdom of Mao. Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Indochina to Algeria (New York, 1964), 112.
3. Mark Seiden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionäry China (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 277.
4. A. M. FUnniantsev, I.stoki i evolutsia idei Mao Tse-tunga (Moscow, 1972), 22-33.
5. Jean Chesneaux, Peasant Revolts in China (London, 1973), 78-81.
6. SelectedWorks of Mao Tse-tung (Peking, n.d.), I,23.
7. Jerome Ch'en, Mao and the Chinese Revolution (London, 1965), 112; Maurice Meissner, Li Ta-chao and the Origins of Chinese Marxism (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 81.
8. Selected Military Writings of Mao Tse-tung (Peking, 1968), 72, "A single spark can start a prairie fire."
9. S, B, Griffith, The Chinese People's Liberation Army (London, 1968), 29.
10. Robert Rothschild, La chute de Chiang Kai-chek (Paris, 1972), 308.
11. Mao's report at the Sixth National Congress of the CCP, quoted in Brandt, Schwartz and Fairbank, A Documentary History of Chinese Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), 162.
12. Ch'en, op, cit., 151; John E. Rue, Mao Tse-tung in Opposition (Stanford, 1966), 82 et seq.
13. J. Ch'en, "The Resolution of the Tsunyi Conference (January 1935)," China Quarterly (October 1969), 26.
14· Ch'en, Mao, loc, cit,, 155-156,
15. The most detailed account of these events is in Dick Wilson, The Long March (London, 1971); see also Veliki pokhod (Moscow, 1959), and Anthony Garavente, "The Long March," China Quarterly (April 1965), 85 et seq.
16. John Μ. Nolan, "The Long March: Fact and Fancy," Military Affairs (Summer 1966), 81.
17. Detailed comprehensive studies of Communist guerrilla warfare during the Yenan period do not exist. The general literature is listed in the books by Ch'en, Griffith, Seiden and Johnson, mentioned above. Of the eyewitness accounts Edgar Snow's is the most interesting inasmuch as the general background is concerned, whereas E. F. Carlson, Twin Stars of China (New York, 1940), is the most illuminating on military affairs. A great many theoretical analyses of Mao's strategy were published in later years. Among the more interesting are Katzenbach and Hanrahan, "The Revolutionary Strategy of Mao Tse-tung," Political Science Quarterly (September 1955); Chalmers A. Johnson, "Civilian Loyalties and Guerrilla Conflict," World Politics (1964), 287 et seq; Howard L. Boorman and Scott A. Boorman, "Chinese Communist Insurgent Warfare 1935-1949Political Science Quarterly (June 1966).
18. Edgar Snow, Red Star over China (New York, 1961), 254.
19. Mark Seiden, The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China (Cambridge, 1971), 66.
20. Lyman P. Van Slyke, Enemies and Friends (Stanford, 1967), 95.
21. Stuart Schräm, ed., Mao Tse-tung Basic Tactics (London, 1967): this is a series of lectures which has not been included in Mao's Selected Works. It was virtually forgotten, to be rediscovered around 1970 and published — but only outside China.
22. "On Basic Lessons of Conventional War and the Conditions for Developing Guerrilla Warfare in Northern China," in Thomas W. Robinson, A Politico-Military Biography of Lin Piao (Santa Monica, 1971), part 1,113 et seq.
23. Selected Military Writings, loc. cit., 138.
24. Ibid., 139.
25. Ibid., 141.
26. "Problems of Strategy in Guerrilla War against Japan" (May 1938), in Selected Military Writings, 157-165.
27. Ibid., 168.
28. Ibid., 181.
29. "On Protracted War," in Selected Military Writings, op, cit., et seq.
30. Basic Tactics, 55 et seq.
31. Robinson, loc. cit., 124.
32. Report given at the Seventh Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (April 1945) republished in The Battle Front of the Liberated Areas (Peking, 1962).
33. Chong-Sik Lee, Counterinsurgency in Manchuria. The Japanese Experience 1931-1950 (Santa Monica, 1967), VII.
34. Griffith, op. cit., 74.
35. Jerome Ch'en, op. cit., 239-240.
36. Roy Hofheinz, Jr., in A. Doak Barnett, Chinese Communist Politics in Action (Seattle, 1967), 67.
37. Chalmers A. Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power. The Emergence of Revolutionary China 1937-1945 (Stanford, 1962),passim.
38. J. L. S. Girling, People's War (London, 1969), 79.
39. This passage from Mao's "On New Democracy" was deleted from subsequent e
ditions. Stuart J. Schram, Introduction to Basic Tactics, op, cit., 2g.
40. "On the New Stage," in Schram, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung (New York, 1963), 113-114.
41. Vo Nguyen Giap, People's War, People's Army (New York, 1962), 174.
42. Col. Roberts E. Biggs, "Red Parallel: The Tactics of Ho and Mao," U.S. Combat Forces Journal (January 1955).
43· Douglas Pike, Vietcong (Cambridge, 1966), 8.
44. Bernard B. Fall, Viet-Nam Witness 1953-1966 (New York, 1968), 229; John T. McAlister, Jr., The Beginnings of Revolution (London, 1969), 206.
45. Joseph Buttinger, Vietman: A Dragon Embattled (New York, 1967), II, 760.
46. Jean Lacouture, Ho Chi Minh (New York, 1968), 14.
47. Bernard Fall, Street without Joy (Harrisburg, 1961), 24. For the general background of the history of the Communist and nationalist movement in Vietnam during this period, see Buttinger, op. cit.; Paul Mus, Viet-Nam, Sociologie d'une guerre (Paris, 1950); Philippe Devillers, Histoire de Viet-Nam de 1940 à 1952 (Paris, 1952); and Β. B. Fall,Le Viet-Minh (Paris, 1960).
48. Buttinger, II, 739; for firsthand accounts of Vietminh guerrilla warfare see the books by Bernard Fall and Wilfred G. Burchett.
49. Buttinger, II, 741.
50. Bernard B, Fall, Truong Chih (New York, 1963).
51. Ibid., 74.
52. Douglas Pike, War, Peace and the Viet Cong (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 142 et seq.
53. Giap, People's War, People's Army, 48.
54. "The Big Victory, the Great Task," in Patrick J. McGarvey, Visions of Victory. Selected Vietnamese Communist Writings 1964-68 (Stanford, 1969), 40.
55. Giap, op. cit., 108.
56. Ibid., 109.
57. McGarvey, op. cit., 41.
58. Robert J. O'Neill, General Giap (Sidney, ig6g),203.
59. McGarvey, op. cit., 15,45.
60. George A. Carver, "The Faceless Viet Cong," Foreign Affairs (April, 1966), 360.
61. Carver, loc. cit.
62. J. J. Zasloff, Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954-60: The Role of the Southern Vietminh Cadres, RAND Memorandum RM-5163/2/ARPA (Santa Monica, 1967), 27.
63. Bernard B. Fall,lMst Reflections on a War (New York, 1967), 219,220.
64. Wesley R. Fishel, ed., Anatomy of a Conflict (Ithaca, 1968), 425.
65. For a study of Viet Cong political motivation see J. J. Zasloff's RAND Memo. RM 4703/2 2-ISA ARPA (August:1966).
66. John Gerassi, Towards Revolution (London, 1971), 1,107.
67. Associated Press (11 May 1975).
68. Douglas Pike, "How Strong is the NLF?" in Fishel, loc. cit., 412.
69. Duncanson, in Fishel, op. cit., 428.
70. Denis Warner, The Last Confucian (London, 3964), 32; Ton Tat Thien, "Vietnam, A Case of Social Alienation," International Affairs (July 1967).
71. Buttinger, op. cit., 984; Vietnam: W. Burchett, Inside Story of the Guerrilla War (New York, 1965), 84-89.
72. Pike, loc. cit., 418.
73. David Halberstam, The Making of a Quagmire (New York, 1965), 167.
74. Quoted in W. R. Fishel, 500-503.
Chapter Seven: National Liberation and Revolutionary War
1. Yehuda Bauer, From Diplomacy to Resistance (Philadelphia, 1970), 319.
2. There are many personal accounts of the anti-British struggle in Palestine between 1944 and 1948 but there is no comprehensive historical study. The paramilitary organizations involved have all published their official histories. Sefer toldot ha-Hagana (Tel Aviv, 1963), II, books 1 and 2; David Niv, Ma'arakhot ha-lrgun ha-Zvai ha-Leumi (Tel Aviv, 1965-1973), III, IV; Kovetz Lehi (Tel Aviv, 1959); Sefer ha-Palmach (Tel Aviv, 1953). See also Natan Yalin Mor, Lohame Herut Israel (Tel Aviv, 1974).
3. M. Begin, The Revolt (London, n.d, [1951?]), 317.
4. Kousoulas, Revolution and Defeat, 236.
5. J, C. Murray, "The Anti-Bandit War" in Greene, The Guerrilla, 98.
6. Edgar O'Ballance, The Greek Civil War 1944-1949 (London, 1966), 181. For a sympathetic though not uncritical account, Dominique Eudis, The Kapetanios (London, 1972).
7. The fullest account of the Indonesian struggle for independence is George McT. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca, 1952). Among more recent works with a bearing on the period are J. M. van den Kroef, The Communist Party of Indonesia (Vancouver, 1965); B. Dahm, Sukarno and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, 1969); idem, History of Indonesia in the Twentieth Century (London, 1971).
8. Arnold C. Brackman, Indonesian Communism (New York, 1963), 107.
9. J. H. Brimmell, Communism in South East Asia (London, 1959), 255-262; Ruth McVey, The Calcutta Conference and the South East Asian Uprising (Ithaca, 1958), passim.
10. Lucian W. Pye, Guerrilla Communism in Malaya (Princeton, 1956), was an early account of the fighting in Malaya. Others were Gene Hanrahan, The Communist Struggle in Malaya (New York, 1954), and V. Purceli, Malaya Communist or Free? (London, 1954). The fullest survey is Anthony Short, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya 1948-1960 (London, 1975); the author was asked by the Malayan government to write the official history of the "emergency" and had access to almost all relevant sources. In the end the Malayan government refused however to give the book its blessing. Other important works are Robert Thompson, Defeating Communist Insurgency (London, 1966); Richard Clutterbuck, The Long Long War (London, 1967); idem, Riot and Revolution in Singapore and Malaya (London, 1973).
11. Short,Insurrection in Malaya, 3get seq.
12. Ibid., 51.
13. Clutterbuck, Riot and Revolution, 271.
14. Sir Robert Thompson notes that the initial strength of the guerrillas in Malaya and Vietnam was about equal — 4,000 to 5,000 (Defeating Communist Insurgency, 47). But unlike the Vietcong, the guerrillas in Malaya had great difficulty in recruiting new cadres because they had no "popular," only a jungle base.
15. Short, Insurrection in Malaya, 319.
16. Clutterbuck, Riot and Revolution, 211.
17. Ibid., 272.
18. W. J. Pomeroy, ed., Guerrilla Warfare and Marxism (New York, 1968), 34-35.
19. Aguinaldo came from a well-to-do landowning family of mixed Chinese and Taganlog stock. He had been municipal captain of his home town and had a reputation as a proficient street fighter. On the struggle between the American army and Aguinaldo's forces, see J. A. Leroy, The Americans in the Philippines (New York, 1914), 2 vols.; Τ. M. Kalaw, The Philippine Revolution (Manila, 1925); W. Sexton, Soldiers in the Sun (Harrisburg, 1939); G. F. Zaide, The Philippine Revolution (Manila, 1954), and Leon Wolff, Little Brown Brother (London, 1961). The most recent study is Major Robert T. Yap-Diangco, The Filipino Guerrilla Tradition (Manila, 1971).
20. U. S. Baclagon, The Huk Campaign in the Philippines (Manila, 1960), 1.
21. Luis Taruc, He Who Rides the Tiger (London, 1967), 24.
22. Β. T. Bashore in Osanka, 196.
23. B. Dasgupta, "Naxalite Armed Struggles and the Annihilation Campaign in Rural Areas," Economic and Political Weekly, nos. 4-6 (Bombay, 1973).
24. Intercontinental Press (2 June 1975), 741.
25· De Gaulle in conversation with Pierre Laffont, J. R. Tournoux, La tragedie du Genirai (Paris, 1967), 597.
26. The most detailed account of the Algerian war so far is Yves Courriere, La guerre d'Algerie: I, Les fib de la Toussaint (Paris, 1968); II, Le temps des leopards (Paris, 1969); III,L'heure des colonels (Paris, 1970).
27. William B. Quandt, Revolution and Political Leadership. Algeria 1954-1968 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 91.
28. Edward Behr, The Algerian Problem (London, 1961), 60; Michael K. Clark, Algeria in Turmoil (New York, 195g), 58.
29. Quoted in C. and F. Jeanson, L'Algerie hors la loi (Paris, 1955), 298.
30. This applies, for instance, to G. Chaliand and A. Humbaraci; Quandt, Revolution and Political Leadership, 220.
31. Quoted in J. S. Ambler, The French Army in Politics (Columbus, 1966), 331.
32. Title of a
book on Algeria by Mohammed Bessaoud (Paris, 1963).
33. Case studies in Insurgency and Revolutionary warfare: Algeria 1954-62, Special Operations Research Office (Washington, 1963), 19-29.
34. Dickey Chappelle, "How Castro won," reprinted in Osanka, 325.
35. Thomas, "The Origins of the Cuban Revolution," The World Today (October 1963), 490 et seq.; Theodore Draper, Castroism, Theory and Practice (New York, 1965), 103 et seq.
36. Malcolm Deas, "Guerrillas in Latin America: a Perspective," The World Today (February 1968), 74.
37. Thomas, Cuba, 791.
38. Che Guevara, Episodes of the Revolutionary War (Havana, 1967), 13 et seq. 3g. Draper, Castroism, 25.
40. For a discussion of the splits in the Palestinian resistance, the ideologies of the various groups and a bibliography see below, chapter 8.
41. Precise data have not been published, but occasional figures convey a glimpse of the magnitude of the sums involved. Thus according to a PLO spokesman, the arrears of the Arab states alone amounted to sixty million dollars in late March 1974. ("Voice of Palestine," Cairo Radio, 2 June 1974.)
42. For the general background of Kurdish-Arab relations see C. J. Edmond, Turks and Arabs (London, 1957); for descriptions of the Kurdish war, D. Adamson, The Kurdish War (London, 1964), and E. O'Ballance, The Kurdish Revolt 1961-1970 (London, 1973); Rene Maunes, Le Kurdistan ou la mort (Paris, 1967); D. A. Schmidt, Journey among Brave Men (Boston, 1964).
43. J. Bowyer Bell, "Endemic Insurgency and International Order: The Eritrean Experience," Orbis (Summer 1974), 427-450. Originally there were both Muslims and Christians among the ELF cadres, but they split in 1971 along tribal and religious lines. Both the Saudis and Ghadafi resented the presence of Christians in the ELF but there seems to have been friction from the very beginning; it was difficult to get Christian and Muslim cadres even to eat together. Which did not stop the ELF's proclaiming itself a Marxist movement.
44. Documents of the National Struggle in Oman and the Arabian Gulf (London, ig74), 16; R. Fiennes, Where Soldiers Fear to Tread (London, 1975), is a firsthand account of the Oman war.
Guerrilla Warfare Page 59