1ο6. Ε. Behr, The Algerian Problem (London, 1961), 140; Ambler, op. cit., 324.
107. David S. Sullivan and Martin J. Sattler, eds., Revolutionary War and Western Response (New York, 1971), 7 et seq.
108. Ε. L. Katzenbach, Jr, "Time, Space and Will: The Politico-Military View of Mao Tse-tung," in Τ. N. Greene, ed., loc. cit., 19; Virgil Ney, "Guerrilla Warfare and Modern Strategy," in F. M. Osanka, ed., Modern Guerrilla Warfare (Glencoe, 1962), 38.
109. G. Lichtheim, Imperialism (New York, 1971), 164.
110. Dept. of the Army. Operations against Irregular Forces, Field Manual 31-15 (1961), 5.
111. Julian Paget, Counter-Insurgency Campaigning (London, 1967), 23.
112. John J. McCuen, The Art of Counter Revolutionary War (London, 1966), passim.
113. Frank Kitson, Low Intensity Operations (London, 1971), 32.
114. J. Baechler, in Sullivan and Sattler, eds, op. cit., 79.
115. Robert Thompson, Revolutionary War in World Strategy, 1945-1969 (London, 1970), 11.
116. J. L. S. Girling, People's War (London, 196g).
117. David Galula, Counterinsurgency Practice (New York, 1964), passim.
118. Eqbal Ahmad, loc. cit., 4.
119. Ibid., 15.
120. Richard Clutterbuck, Protest and the Urban Guerrilla (London, 1973), 13 et seq.
Chapter Nine: a Summing Up
1. For instance Otto Heilbrunn, Partisan Warfare (London, 1962), 40, and many other authors.
2. E. J. Hobsbawm, Revoltionaries (London, 1973), 165.
3. G. Fairbam, Revolutionary Guerrilla Warfare (London, 1974), 16.
4. M. Elliot-Bateman rightly notes that "people's war" is not a new form of war but that it was forgotten or repressed. On the other hand it is far-fetched, to put it mildly, to consider Lawrence's exploits in Arabia a case of "people's war" as he does. See "The Form of People's War" Army Quarterly (April 1970), 38.
5. Juana Azurduy de Padilla, one of the chief guerrilla leaders in the Andes, was made Teniente Coronel in 1816 (Joaquin Gautier's biography [La Paz, 1973], 199.) In the La Plata wars of the early nineteenth century the guerrilla portion of the campaign (guerra de recursos) was almost entirely entrusted to the women of Paraguay by Brigadier General Eliza Lynch and Lieutenant-Colonel Margaret Ferreira. See also Julio Diaz Arguedas, Guerrilleros y Heroinas de la Independencia (La Paz, 1974), 13-15.
6. The term "internal war" in fact antedates "guerrilla"; it was used in the eighteenth century, but it appears here in its specific modern sense. "People's war," needless to say, is not a new expression either but, following Mao, it has acquired a different specific meaning. The use of "partisan" as a military term can be traced back in English to the early eighteenth century, and in French and Italian to the late sixteenth.
7. The following is a fairly representative but by no means exhaustive sample for the discussion of guerrilla theories: Henry Bienen, Violence and Social Change (Chicago, 1968), 40-65; Lucien Pye and others in Harry Eckstein, ed., Internal War (New York, 1964); Harry Eckstein, "On the Etiology of Internal Wars," History and Theory 2 (1965), 133-163; Chalmers Johnson, "Civilian Loyalties and Guerrilla Conflicts," World Politics (July 1963); Samuel P. Huntington, "Guerrilla Warfare in Theory and Practice" in Osanka, op. cit; J. K. Zawodny, Russell Rhyne, Klaus Knorr and other contributors to the special issue of The Annals (May 1962); Franklin A, Lindsay, "Unconventional Warfare," American Scholar (Summer 1962); D. F. Robinson, "Irregular Warfare," Army Quarterly and Defence Journal (July 1974); B. Singh and Ko Wang Mei, Theory and Practice of Modern Guerrilla Warfare (New York, 1971); M. Elliot-Bateman, "The Form of People's War," Army Quarterly (April 1970); P. Kecskemeti, Insurgency as a Strategic Problem (Santa Monica, 1967); Charles Wolf, Jr., Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: New Myths and Old Realities (Santa Monica, 1965); Eqbal Ahmad, E. R. Wolf and M. Gelden in N. Miller and R. Aya, eds., National Liberation, Revolution in the Third World (New York, 1971); Roger Darling, "Analyzing Insurgency," Military Review (February 1974); Nathan Leites and Charles Wolf, Rebellion and Authority—An Analytical Essay on Insurgent Conflicts (Chicago, 1970).
8. Kecskemeti, op, cit., 15.
9. Pye in Eckstein, ed., op. cit., 162.
10. Eckstein in History and Theory, op. cit., 153.
11. Revue Militaire Génerale (January 1957).
12. L. Oppenheim, International Law (London, 1940), Section 254.
13. Jürg H. Schmid. Die völkerrechtliche Stellung der Partisanen im Kriege (Zürich, 1956); Carl Schmitt, Theorie des Partisanen (Berlin, 1963); Alfred Bopp, Moderner Krieg und Kriegsgefangenenrecht (Würzburg, 1970); Charles Zorgbibe, La Guerre Civile (Paris, 1975); J. Siotis, Le droit de la guerre et les confiits armés d'un caractère non international (Geneva, 1958); M. Venthey, La guérrilla: le problème du traitement des prisonniers in Annales d'Etudes Internationales (Geneva, 1972); F. Kaishoven, "The Position of Guerrilla Fighters under the Law of War," International Society for Military Law (Leyden, 1969); J. R. Rosenau, ed., International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton, 1964); R. Pinto, "Les règies du droit international concernant la guerre civile," Revue des Cours de l'Academie de Droit International (1965), vol. 114.
14. Bienen, loc. cit., 105.
15. Darling, op. cit.
16. Huntington in Osanka, op. cit., XVI.
17. Β. M. Jenkins, High Technology Terrorism and Surrogate War: The Impact of Surrogate War on Low-Level Violence (Santa Monica, 1975).
18. This is, in any case, part of a wider problem, that of individuals blackmailing society. A terrorist "movement" will not be needed to engage in nuclear extortion; a small group of madmen or criminals, or perhaps a single individual will be equally effective, perhaps even more so, because the smaller the group the more difficult to identify and combat it.
19. Luis Padiila in World Marxist Review (April 1975) and T. Timofeev in Kommunist (April 1975).
Chronology of Major Guerrilla Wars
(Including general wars in which guerrilla operations played a significant role)
(Including general wars in which guerrilla operations played a significant role) United States War of Independence 1775-1783
Vendee 1792-1796
South Italy (Ruffo) 1799
Spain 1809-1812
Tyrol 1809
Russia 1812
Latin America (Wars of Independence) ca. 1810-1821
Greece 1821-1832
Carlist Wars 1834-1839
Poland 1831, 1863
North Africa (Abd el-Kader) 1830-1847
Caucasus (Shamyl) 1834-1859
Italy 1848-1849 etc.
Colonial Wars Such As:
Anglo-Burmese Wars 1824-1826,1852,1885
Sikh Wars 1845-1849
Maori Wars 1845-1870
Kaffir War 1851-1852
Ashanti Wars 1863-1874
Bhutan 1865
Zulu War 1879
Sudan 1883-1885
Tonkin Uprisings 1883-1895
Madagascar 1884,1895
Waziristan 1919-1923
American Indian Wars 1850-1890
Russia in Central Asia 1837-1884
Taiping Rebellion 1851-1865
United States War of Secession 1861-1865
Mexico 1862-1867
Cuba 1868-1878,1895-1898
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871
Bosnia 1878-1879
Macedonia (IMRO) 1893-1934
Boer War 1899-1902
Philippines 1899-1902
Mexico 1911-1919
East Africa (Lettow-Vorbeck) 1914-1918
Ireland 1916,1919-1922
Arabia (Lawrence) 1916-1917
Russian Civil War 1918-1921
Soviet Union (Basmatchis) 1919-1930
North Africa (Abd el-Krim) 1921-1927
Brazil (Prestes) 1926-1927
Nicaragua (Sondino) 1927-1933
China 1927-1945
Palestine 1936-1939
Second World War:
Soviet Union 1941-1944
Yugoslavia 1941-1945
Albania 1941-1944
Poland 1944
Slovakia 1944
Greece 1942-1944
France 1941-1944
Italy 1943-1944
Palestine 1944-1948
Iraq (Kurds) 1945-1975
Philippines (Huk) 1946-1956,1972-
Vietnam 1946-1952
Burma 1947-
Greek Civil War 1947-1949
Indonesia 1947-1949
Malaya 1948-1956
Mau Mau (Kenya Emergency) 1952-1956
Algeria 1954-1960
Sudan 1955-1972
Cyprus 1955-1959
Cuba 1957-1959
Eritrea 1958-
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia 1959-1975
Angola 1961-1975
Mozambique 1961-1975
Venezuela 1962-1965
Peru 1962-1965
Guinea-Bissau 1963-1974
Rhodesia 1963-
Guatemala 1964-1967
Colombia 1964-
Chad 1965-
Israel 1965-
Oman 1965-
Thailand 1965
Brazil 1968-1970
Uruguay 1968-1972
India (Naxalites) 1969-1972
Ulster 1969-
Argentina 1972-
Abbreviations
(The figures indicate approximate date of foundation or activity.)
AK Armia Kraiowa
(Home Army) Poland World War II
AL Armia Ludowa
(People's Army) Poland World War II
ALN Ação Libertadora National Brazil 1968
ALN Armée de la Libération Nationale Algeria 1954-1960
CNR Conseil National de la Resistance France World War II
EDES Ethnikos Dimokratikos Ellinikos Syndemos
(National Republican Greek League) Greece World War II
ELAS Ethnikos Ellinikos Laikos Apelephterikos Stratos
(National Popular Liberation Army) Greece World War II
ELF Eritrean Liberation Front Ethiopia 1958-
ELN Ejército de Liberación Nacional Bolivia 1967
ELN Ejército de Liberación Nacional Columbia 1965
ELN Ejército de Liberación Nacional Peru early 1960s
EOKA Ethniki Organosis Kypriakou Agoniston
(National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) Cyprus 1954-
EOKAII Cyprus 1972-1974
ERP Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo Argentina 1970
ERP Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo San Salvador
ETA Euzkadi ta Askatasuna Spain-Basque 1966
FALN Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Venezuela 1962
FAR Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias Argentina 1973
FAR Fuerzas Armadas Rebeldes Guatemala 1962
FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Columbia Columbia 1966
FATAH Palestinian Arabs (Exile)
FFI Forces Francaises de Vlnterieur France 1942-1945
FLCS Front for the Liberation of Coastal Somalia Somalia 1974
FLQ Front de Libération de Quebec Canada early 1970s
FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique Mozambique 1962
FROLINAT Front de Libération National du Tchad Chad 1966
FROLIZI Front for the Libération of Zimbabwe Rhodesia 1971
FSLN Frente Sandinista de Liberacion National Nicaragua ca. 1960
FTP Franctireurs Partisans France World War II
GRAE/FLNA Governo Revolucionario de Angola no Exilio/Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola Angola late 1950s
HRB Hrvatsko Revolucionarno Bratsvo Croatia (exile) 1960s
IRA-Officials Irish Revolutionary Army Ulster
IRA-Provisionals Irish Revolutionary Army Ulster
IZL Irgun Zvai Leumi
(National Military Organization) Palestine 1940-1948
LEHI Lohame Herut Israel
(Fighters for the Freedom of Israel) Palestine 1940-1948
MIR Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria Bolivia 1974
MIR Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria Chile 1965
MIR Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria Peru early 1960s
MIR-13 Movimiento Revolucionario de Noviembre 13 Guatemala 1963
MLN Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional
(Tupamaros) Uruguay 1963-1972
MNLA Malayan National Libération Army Malaya World War II and after
Monteneros Argentina 1968
MPLA Movimento Popular para a Libertação de Angola Angola 1960
NPA New People's Army Philippines 1968-1969
PAIGC Partido Africano de Independencia da Guinea 'Portuguesa' e das Ilhas de Cabo Verde 1956
PDFLP Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (Exile) 1968
PFLP Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (Exile) 1968
PFLP
General
Command Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
(General Command) (Exile) 1968
PFLO Popular Front for the Libération of Oman (formerly PFLOAG) Oman 1963
PLO Palestine Libération Organization (Exile) 1965
RAF Rote Armee Fraktion
(Baader-Meinhof) Germany 1970
SIAKHAL Iran 1970
SWANU South West African National Union 1960
SWAPU South West African People's Organization 1960
TPLA Turkish People's Libération Army Turkey 1970
UDA Ulster Defence Association Ulster
UNITA União National para a Independencia Total de Angola Angola 1966
UVF Ulster Volunteer Force Ulster
ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union Rhodesia 1963
ZAPU Zimbabwe African People's Union Rhodesia 1961-1962
Bibliography
Bibliographical Note
There is 110 comprehensive bibliography on guerrilla literature. The wars in the Vendée and Andreas Hofer's insurrection in Tyrol have been studied in great detail; whereas the literature on the Spanish guerrillas, on the Russian partisans (1812), and Cardinal RufFo's expedition in 1799 is relatively sparse.
Of the early theoreticians οt partisan warfare Grandmaison, de Jeney, Emmerich, Ewald and von Valentini whose works were published between 1750 and 1800 are the most important; with the exception of von Valentini they are largely anecdotal in character. Denis Davydov's account of the Russian partisans is the most vivid.
The books of Decker (1821) and Le Mière de Corvey (1823) encompass the experience gained in the Napoleonic wars; far more systematic than their predecessors they were copied or paraphrased in countless subsequent works.
Clausewitz and Jomini refer to people's wars and the former taught a course on the technique of "small war." His notes on the subject, published in 1966, have not yet appeared in English.
The writings of the Polish and Italian authors on the technique of military insurrection are of paramount importance because of their preoccupation with the politics and the strategy of wars of national liberation. Some of them thought that partisan units would be transformed sooner or later into a regular army, others were in favor of "pure guerrillaism." E. Liberti, Techniche della guerra partigiana nel Risorgimento (Florence, 1972) is an excellent, very detailed survey of the Italian nineteenth-century literature; his volume also reproduces Gentilini's Stracorridori (1848) and Carlo Bianco's Manuale Pratico (1833) though not his more important Trattatto (1830). There is no such introduction into the equally interesting Polish literature of the period. Marian Zychowski's biography of Mierosiawski (in Polish; Warsaw, 1963) contains probably the best bibliographical guide available. Bem's and Stolzman's works were republished in Warsaw after 1945, most other works of this period have become exceedingly rare. Mazzini's and Pisacane's writings are readily available today, but not those of other Italian writers of the 1840s and 1850s such as Cesare Balbo, Guglielmo Pepe, La Masa et al.
The German and Austrian nineteenth-century literature (Schels, Boguslawski, Rüstow, Hron) deals mai
nly with partisan operations in the enemy's rear in collaboration with the regular army; the same refers to Russian authors such as Gershelman and Klembowski. There are very many British and French accounts of colonial campaigns in the nineteenth century but only very few studies of a general character. The most important are those by Callwell (1899) and Maguire (1904). Devaureix (1881) and Charenton (1900) on the other hand deal only with the European experience. Τ. E. Lawrence and Lettow-Vorbeck described their activities during the First World War in considerable detail. The various Latin American guerrilla wars during the nineteenth century and early twentieth have been covered in absorbing detail but there were few attempts to generalize on the basis of this rich experience.
Socialist authors with a very few exceptions were not interested in partisan warfare. Marx and Engels referred to it on rare occasions, Lenin did so even more infrequently. Blanqui's Instructions were published only after the First World War. Johannes Most provided the first do-it-yourself manual for terrorists but even he was not interested in the wider aspects of urban terror. Thus it was left to Mao to rediscover the theory and practice of guerrilla warfare, and in his wake, to Giap, Guevara, Debray and the others. Recent, i.e., post-World War II, literature is readily available; the theoretical works are by necessity didactic and repetitive, the personal accounts are sometimes fascinating. The only two works dealing with guerrilla war in historical perspective are Professor Werner Hahlweg's Guerrilla (1968), a short survey with an excellent bibliography, and F. Tudman's much more voluminous Rat protiv rat (War against War) (in Serbo-Croat, Zagreb, 1957), heavily preoccupied with theBalkan roots and manifestations of guerrilla war.
There have been several popular histories of guerrilla warfare from Percy Cross Standing's Guerrilla Leaders of the World (London, 1912) to Robert B. Asprey's War in the Shadows (New York, 1975). The anthologies such as those by Osanka (1962) and Pomeroy (1968) cover almost exclusively contemporary guerrilla warfare.
The following selective list includes works of historical or topical importance. Books on specific guerrilla wars, terrorism and counterinsurgency have, as a rule, not been included. Readers may find the references in the footnotes of the present volume of some help in their search for further literature.
Κ. Adaridi. Freischaren und Freikorps. Auf Grund von Kriegserfahrungen. Berlin, 1925·
F. R. Allemann. Macht und Ohnmacht der Guerilla, Munich, 1974.
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