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Page 37
e defi nition of
“carpetbagger” and “scalawag” comes from James A. Baggett, Allen W. Trelease, and
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Notes to pages 10–15
201
Richard N. Current (see James A. Baggett, Th
e Scalawags: Southern Dissenters in the
Civil War and Reconstruction [Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003];
Allen W. Trelease “Who Were the Scalawags,” in Reconstruction: An Anthology of
Revisionist Writings, ed. Kenneth M. Stampp and Leon F. Litwack [Baton Rouge: Loui-
siana State University Press, 1969], 299–322; and Current, “Carpetbaggers Reconsid-
ered,” 223–240).
10. Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 4:102.
11. Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 5:706. For the biography of George T. Ruby,
see Barry A. Crouch, “Black Education in Civil War and Reconstruction Louisiana:
George T. Ruby, the Army, and the Freedmen’s Bureau,” Louisiana History 38 (Summer
1997): 287–308; Randall B. Woods, “George T. Ruby: A Black Militant in the White
Business Community,” Red River Valley Historical Review 1 (August 1974): 269–280;
Smallwood, “G. T. Ruby,” 24–33; Merline Pitre, Th
rough Many Dangers, Toils, and
Snares: Th
e Black Leadership of Texas, 1868–1900 (Austin: Eakin Press, 1985). For doubt
concerning Ruby’s lineage, see Carl H. Moneyhon, “George T. Ruby and the Politics of
Expediency in Texas,” in Southern Black Leaders of Reconstruction Era, ed. Howard N.
Rabinowitz (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 363, 389–390; and Crouch,
“Black Education,” 287.
12. Ira Hobart Evans, Vertical File, Center for America History, University of Texas
at Austin, Austin, Texas; Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 2:904–905; Members of the
Texas Congress, 1846–2004 (Austin: Senate Publications, 2005), 2:131. Th
ere exists an
extensive collection of Evans papers at the University of Tulsa, but this material
focuses primarily on his business dealings aft er Bureau service.
13. George Lang, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comps., Medal of
Honor Recipients 1863–1994, 2 vols. (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1995), 1:1087; Charles
F. Rand File, Pension Record, Bureau of Veterans Aff airs, National Archives and
Records Administration, Washington, D.C., Record Group 15 (hereaft er cited Pension
Record); George A. Otis, ed., Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion,
12 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Offi
ce, 1876): 10:529; Washington
Post, October 13, 1907.
14. For occupation numbers in Texas, see Ninth Census, Wealth and Industry,
3:808–823. Th
e percentage for those in the Union army listing farming as their occupa-
tion is in Wiley, Billy Yank, 304. All subsequent numbers and percentages for the state
or country come from the Ninth Census, Wealth and Industry source unless specifi ed
otherwise. Th
e exact percentage for the state is 70.4 percent.
15. Martin Abbott, Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina, 1865–1872 (Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1967), 23; Finley, From Slavery to Uncertain
Freedom, 11; Cimbala, “On the Front Line of Freedom,” 583–588; John Cornelius
Engelsman, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau in Louisiana,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly 32
(January 1949): 162.
16. J. B. Kiddoo to [O. O.] Howard, May 28, 1866, M752C, Letters Received, May–
August 1866, reel 36 (hereaft er LR); Charles Haughn, Waco, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G,
September 5, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1868, reel 12; E. R. S. Canby to O. O. Howard, Febru-
ary 9, 1869, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; William Sinclair, Inspector, to C. S. Roberts,
A.A.A.G, September 8, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; H. K. Taylor to William H.
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Notes to pages 15–18
Sinclair, Inspector, April 23, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; L. H. Sanger, Command-
ing Post of Livingston, to A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G, August 5, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867,
reel 8.
17. John Cox and LaWanda Cox, “General O. O. Howard and the ‘Misrepresented
Bureau,’ ” Journal of Southern History 19 (November 1953): 440–441; Carpenter, Sword
and Olive Branch, 100.
18. E. M. Wheelock to J. B. Kiddoo, September 23, 1866, Letters Received, 1866–
1867, AC, reel 9. John W. Sprague, assistant commissioner of Arkansas, also favored
those who served in all- black regiments (see Th
omas S. Staples, Reconstruction in
Arkansas, 1862–1874 [New York: Columbia University Press, 1923]).
19. J. Orville Shelby to [J. B.] Kiddoo, July 26, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; A.
Willis to J. J. Reynolds, May 8, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; J. B. Kiddoo to O. O.
Howard, August 8, 1866, AC, Letters Sent, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1 (hereaf-
ter LS); Circular letter from O. O. Howard, December 22, 1865, AC, Unregistered Let-
ters Received, 1865–1866, reel 17 (hereaft er ULR); Olds, “Freedmen’s Bureau as a Social
Agency,” 120.
20. Texas agents awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor are Ira Hobart Evans,
Charles F. Rand, William Rufus Shaft er, and Hiram Seymour Hall.
21. Lang, et al., comps., Medal of Honor Recipients, 1863–1894 , 1:198; Tyler, ed.,
New Handbook of Texas, 1:987–988; New York Times, November 13, 1906; Paul H. Carl-
son, “Pecos Bill”: A Military Biography of William R. Shaft er (College Station: Texas
A&M University Press, 1989), 160–188; Charles D. Rhodes, “William Rufus Shaft er,”
Michigan History Magazine 16 (Fall 1932): 375–377; Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas,
1:556–557; Joseph Jones Reynolds File, Pension Record; Ezra J. Warner, Generals in
Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press,
1964), 397–398. Another notable Bureau agent was Ranald S. Mackenzie (see Ernest
Wallace, Ranald S. Mackenzie on the Texas Frontier [College Station: Texas A&M Uni-
versity Press, 1993], 60–168; Charles M. Robinson, III, Bad Hand: A Biography of Gen-
eral Ranald S. Mackenzie [Austin: State House Press, 1993], 323–329; Michael D. Pierce,
Th
e Most Promising Young Offi
cer: A Life of Ranald Slidell Mackenzie [Norman: Uni-
versity of Oklahoma Press, 1993], 223–233; and Warner, Generals in Blue, 302–303). For
criticisms of Shaft er during the Spanish- American War, see Warren Zimmerman, First
Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Th
eir Country a World Power (New York:
Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002).
22. Portrait and biographical album of Washtenaw County, Michigan, contains
biographical sketches of prominent and representative citizens, together with biogra-
phies of all the governors of the state, and of the presidents of the United States (Chi-
cago: Biographical Publishing Company, 1891), 525–527; Gregory Barrett File, Pension
Record; Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 2:565�
�566; Austin American Statesman,
March 4, 1954; Houston Post, November 24, 1968.
23. Hiram Seymour Hall File, Pension Record; Barry Crouch, “Th
e Freedmen’s
Bureau in Beaumont,” Texas Gulf Historical and Biographical Record (Part One) 28
(1992): 11; William H. Horton File, Pension Record; Frank Holsinger File, Pension
Record; Ninth Census of the United States, 1870, Schedule I (Inhabitants), National
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Notes to pages 18–21
203
Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C. (hereaft er cited Ninth
Census).
24. J. B. Kiddoo to [O. O.] Howard, May 28, 1866, M752C, LR, May–August 1866,
reel 36; United States Bureau of the Census, Th
e Statistics of Wealth and Industry . . .
Compiled from the Original Returns of the Ninth Census, 4 vols. (Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Offi
ce, 1872), 3:812 (hereaft er cited Ninth Census, and specifi c
volume title); Lowe, “Freedmen’s Bureau and Local White Leaders in Virginia,” 461,
464; Cimbala, Under the Guardianship of the Nation, 256; J. B. Kiddoo to O. O. How-
ard, May 14, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1.
25. Th
e agents’ ages, as shown in Figure 1–4, are from various sources, with most
found in one of the U.S. Census.
26. Wiley, Billy Yank, 303. Th
e breakdown of the 154 men whose age could be deter-
mined is as follows: 40 in their 20s; 67 in their 30s; 30 in their 40s; 11 in their 50s; and 6
more than 60 or older.
27. Lowe, “Freedmen’s Bureau and Local White Leaders in Virginia,” 463.
28. Th
is bracket, $1,000 to $4,999 was taken from Randolph B. Campbell and
Richard G. Lowe , Wealth and Power in Antebellum Texas (College Station: Texas
A&M University Press, 1977), chapter 3. Th
e amount of wealth between $1,000 and
$4,999 is a good indicator of the middle class. Campbell and Lowe found that a plu-
rality (35.1 percent) of white Texans had a total wealth within this bracket. With that
many people, it can be claimed, they were the middle class in mid- nineteenth- century
Texas (see Campbell and Lowe, Wealth and Power, 46).
29. Th
e total wealth in this study came by using the total assessed wealth from
the country (14,178,986,732) divided by white heads- of- households (6,621,957). Black
men and women household heads were not included, because their total wealth was
inconsequential. According to his study of Harrison County, Randolph B. Campbell
found the average black head- of- household to possess only $29 in total wealth. In
1870 there were 956,096 black heads- of- households. Using Campbell’s total for black
heads- of- households’ total wealth ($29) multiplied by the number of black heads- of-
households in the country in 1870 (956,096) equals $27,726,784 in total wealth. It
would not be a stretch to conclude the total wealth of black household heads approx-
imated this number. When this number is divided by 6,621,957 (white heads- of-
households only) it equals a little more than $4 per head. As a result, the average
black head- of- household’s wealth was not excised from the total wealth in the
United States for it would have changed the overall average very little (see Ninth
Census, Statistics of Wealth and Industry, 3:10; Randolph B. Campbell, A Southern
Community in Crisis: Harrison County, Texas, 1850–1880 [Austin: Texas State Histor-
ical Association, 1983], 301; and Susan B. Carter, et al., Historical Statistics of the
United States: Earliest Times to the Present, 6 vols. [New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2006], 1:679–681).
30. Ninth Census, Statistics of Wealth and Industry, 3:10; Carter, et al., Historical
Statistics, 1:680.
31. Lee Soltow, Men and Wealth in the United States, 1850–1870 (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1975), 23–24, 33.
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Notes to pages 21–25
32. Cimbala does not specifi cally state the average wealth (personal and real estate)
of the 71 agents he found in Georgia’s tax records. Nor does he list their specifi c taxable
property. Instead, he simply states those above a specifi ed amount. For example, 15
agents had taxable property worth $1,000 to $4,999. Th
e average for Georgia’s agents is
approximate, but still greatly exceeds the average wealth held by those agents in Texas
(See Cimbala, Guardianship of a Nation, 256).
33. Lowe, “Freedmen’s Bureau and Local White Leaders in Virginia,” 460, 458;
Cimbala, Under the Guardianship of the Nation, 256. For works showing the generally
greater wealth of offi
ceholders, see Randolph B. Campbell and Richard G. Lowe,
“Wealthholding and Political Power in Antebellum Texas,” Southwestern Historical
Texas 75 (July 1978): 21–30; and Lee Soltow, Patterns in Wealthholding in Wisconsin
Since 1850 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1971).
34. A. P. Ketchum, A.A.A.G., to J. B. Kiddoo, October 5, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867,
reel 6.
35. Examples of “scalawag” Bureau agents being persecuted during the war for
their Union beliefs are Johnathan T. Whiteside, Courtney, to E. M. Gregory, December
1, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; John H. Morrison to [E. M.] Gregory, [Spring
1866], AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; and Henry C. Pedigo to [E. M.] Gregory, January 27,
1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17.
36. Eli W. Green, Columbus, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., October 24, 1865,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., Feb-
ruary 18, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to [E. M.]
Gregory, October 31, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to Wil-
liam Garretson, A.A.A.G., September 25, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13.
37. George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to [E. M.] Gregory, October 31, 1865, AC, ULR,
1865–1866, reel 17; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory, November 23, 1865,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; William H. Farner to [E. M.] Gregory, November 25, 1865,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Albert Evans, Sherman, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.G., Febru-
ary 17, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5.
38. Philip Howard, Meridian, to E. M. Gregory, March 22, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 6; Philip Howard, Meridian, to [E. M.] Gregory, April 30, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 6; Henry C. Pedigo to [E. M.] Gregory, January 25, 1866, AC, ULR,
1865–1866, reel 17.
39. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., March 19, 1867, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; John H. Morrison to [E. M.] Gregory, [Spring 1866], AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 7; L. S. Barnes, Crockett, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., July 9, 1866,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Special Orders No. 96, July 28, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–
April 1869, reel 19; Th
omas J. Mortimer to J. B. Kiddoo, January, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–
1867
, reel 7.
40. J. R. S. Van Vleet to [E. M.] Gregory, March 12, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel
17; William D. Price to [E. M.] Gregory, February 22, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7;
Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 2:196–197. For information on Edwin Miller Whee-
lock, who was a Unitarian minister and was moved to join the Union with the issuance
of the Emancipation Proclamation, see Charles Kassel, “Edwin Miller Wheelock,” Th
e
Open Court 34 (September 1920): 564–569; Charles Kassel, “Edwin Miller Wheelock: A
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Notes to pages 25–28
205
Prophet of Civil War Times,” Th
e Open Court 36 (February 1922): 116–124; and Edwin
Miller Wheelock, Vertical File, Center for America History, University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, Texas.
41. W. A. Howard to O. O. Howard, April 25, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; Henry
C. Pedigo to [E. M.] Gregory, January 27, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Tyler, ed.,
New Handbook of Texas, 2:657.
42. Edward Miller, Millican, to Brvt. Maj. Gen. L. Th
omas, Adjutant General, June
23, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; William H. Horton, Bastrop, to J. P. Richardson,
A.A.A.G., April 25, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 12.
43. Michael Butler to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., April 20, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1868,
reel 16; George Eber to C. S. Roberts, A.A.Q.M., March 7, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel
11; Robert McClermont to J. B. Kiddoo, August 30, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7;
Charles Schmidt to J. J. Reynolds, March 12, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; C. S. Rob-
erts, Austin, to O. O. Howard, September 19, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 12.
44. Eugene Smith, Indianola, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 1, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17.
45. William Longworth, Sutherland Springs, to [E. M. Gregory], January 15, 1866,
ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; William H. Sinclair, Galveston, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G.,
October 7, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; William Longworth, Sutherland Springs, to
J. B. Kiddoo, November 12, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6.
46. William Longworth, Sutherland Springs, to [E. M. Gregory], March 9, 1866,
AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; William H. Sinclair, Galveston, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G.,