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Page 44
November 1866, reel 16; Endorsement of letter from Champ Carter, Sterling, to Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, A.A.G., June 2, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2.
28. Oakes, “A Failure of a Vision,” 74; Nieman, “Andrew Johnson, the Freedmen’s
Bureau,” 420; Nieman, To Set the Law in Motion, 113–114. Civil courts evading their
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Notes to pages 79–82
231
responsibilities are in Charles Griffi
n to O. O. Howard, February 12, 1867, M752C, LR,
January–May, 1867, reel 44; James P. Butler, Huntsville, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G.,
May 2, 1868, AC, ROC, March–April, 1868, reel 25; Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to
Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., June 30, 1868, AC, ROC, May–July, 1868, reel 26; Arthur
B. Homer, Columbia, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., July 27, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869,
reel 12; and E. M. Pease to J. J. Reynolds, February 27, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 12.
29. Tyler, ed., New Handbook of Texas, 1:562–563; Winnell Albrecht, “Th
e Texas
Black Codes” (Master’s Th
esis, Southwest Texas State University, 1969), 84–102.
30. Barry Crouch, “ ‘All the Vile Passions’: Th
e Texas Black Codes of 1866,” South-
western Historical Quarterly 97 (July 1993), 23–24; H. P. N. Gammel, Th
e Laws of Texas,
1822–1897 . . . 10 vols. (Austin: Th
e Gammel Book Company, 1898), 5:995–996.
31. Farmer-
Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau, 213; Gammel, Th
e
Laws of Texas, 5:979; Schmidt, Free to Work, 62–63; Karin Zipf, Labor of Innocents:
Forced Apprenticeship in North Carolina, 1715–1919 (Baton Rouge: Louisianan State
University Press, 2005), 40–41; Crouch, “All the Vile Passions,” 26; J. Michael Rhyne,
“ ‘Conduct . . . Inexcusable and Unjustifi able’: Bound Children, Battered Freedwomen,
and the Limits of Emancipation in Kentucky’s Bluegrass Region,” Journal of Social
History 42 (Winter 2008): 324; Endorsement of letter from J. Albert Saylor, Halletts-
ville, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 7, 1866, AC, Endorsements Sent, April
1866–March 1867, reel 2; Michael Grossberg, Governing the Hearth: Law and the Fam-
ily in Nineteenth- Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
1985), 259.
32. William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to Stanton Weaver, Crockett, January 23, 1866, AC,
LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; Endorsement of letter from J. Orville Shelby,
Liberty, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 1, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September
1867, reel 2; Byron Porter, Austin, to John Bremond, November 20, 1866, SAC, LS, July
1866–May 1867, reel 12; Endorsement of letter from J. F. Hutchison, Columbia, to Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 8, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to J. W. McConaughey, Richmond, February 5, 1866, SAC, LS,
March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; Eugene Smith, Waco, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G.,
February 23, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1886, reel 17; Endorsement of letter from Phineas
Stevens, Hallettsville, to Charles Griffi
n, August 27, 1867, AC, ES, March 1867–May
1869, reel 2; W. A. Low, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and Civil Rights in Maryland,” Jour-
nal of Negro History 37 (July 1952): 232; B. J. Arnold, Brenham, to Chauncey C. Morse,
A.A.A.G., October 28, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; J. B. Kiddoo to M. L. Dunn,
August 20, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1.
33. J. B. Kiddoo to M. L. Dunn, August 20, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March
1867, reel 1; Oliver H. Swingley, Austin, to E. M. Gregory, November 25, 1865, AC, RRR,
1865–1866, reel 29; Oliver H. Swingley, Waco, to E. M. Gregory, December 8, 1865, AC,
ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Ira P. Pedigo, Woodville, to E. M. Gregory, March 1, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; John T. Raper, Columbus, to E. M. Gregory, November 29, 1865,
AC, ULR, 185–1866, reel 17; Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., to John T. Raper, Colum-
bus, November 29, 1865, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1; Hiram Seymour
Hall, Marshall, to E. M. Gregory, November 6, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17;
Endorsement of letter from E. M. McCullugh to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., August 20,
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232
Notes to pages 82–84
1867, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2. For the similarities in apprentice pol-
icy, see Farmer- Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau, 56–57.
34. William J. Neely, Victoria, to Captain, August 20, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel
14; F. P. Wood, Brenham, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., August 8, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 16.
35. David S. Beath, Cotton Gin, to [J. J. Reynolds], September 18, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 10; LaVonne Roberts Jackson, “ ‘Family and Freedom’: Th
e Freedmen’s
Bureau and African- American Women in Texas in the Reconstruction Era, 1865–1869”
(Ph.D. diss., Howard University, 1996), 128, 126; James C. Devine, Huntsville, to James
Hentiss, March 6, 1867, SAC, PCLS, January 1867–March 1868, reel 22. Other examples
of oversight of apprentice contracts are Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to J. T. Kirkman,
A.A.A.G., February 5, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Case of Mary Warren (fw) vs.
James Finnie, November 12, 1866, Hallettsville, SAC, ROC, October 1866–January 1867
and October–December 1868, reel 21; and Endorsement of letter from Walter B. Pease,
Houston, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., March 12, 1867, AC, ES, April 1866–September
1867, reel 2.
36. Endorsement of letter from J. P. Jones, citizen, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G.,
June 1, 1866, SAC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2.
37. Samuel C. Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 27, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Charles C. Culver, Cotton Gin, to J. T. Kirkman,
A.A.A.G., July 24, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Case of Sandy Mungoe (fw) to Ed.
Brunnells, November 6, 1867, Boston, SAC, ROC, July 1867–June 1868, reel 13; Endorse-
ment of letter from Walter B. Pease, Houston, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 16,
1867, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Gregory Barrett, Tyler, to Charles A.
Vernou, A.A.A.G., June 30, 1868, AC, ROC, May–July, 1868, reel 26; Case of Charlotte
Duckett (fw) vs. Levinia E. Lucas, July 8, 1867, Boston, SAC, ROC, July 1867–June 1868,
reel 13; Jones, “Soldiers of Light and Love,” 47; Jackson, “Family and Freedom,” 119;
Barry A. Crouch and Larry Madaras, “Reconstructing Black Families: Perspectives
from the Texas Freedmen’s Bureau Records,” Prologue 18 (Summer 1986): 116–117; Case
of Charles Leigh (fm) vs. Charles Rock, November 5, 1867, Boston, SAC, ROC, July
1867–June 1868, reel 13; Karin L. Zipf, “Reconstructing ‘Free Woman’: African-
American Women, Apprenticeship, and Custody Rights during Reconstruction,” Jour-
nal of Women’s History 12 (Spring 2000): 25. For
the eff ect of free labor domesticity,
apprenticeship, and gender relations, see Farmer- Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freed-
men’ Bureau. For works arguing freedwomen were distrustful of the Bureau, believing
it unresponsive to their needs, narrow in its expectations, preoccupied with restoring
order, divergent in its defi nition of womanhood, ignorant to gender/racial disparities,
compromising to freedpeople’s freedom, inadequate in its help, and coercive and racist
in its practices, see Catherine Clinton, “Reconstructing Freedwomen,” in Divided
Houses: Gender and the Civil War, ed. Catherine Clinton and Nina Silber (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1992), 306–319; Leslie A. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We:
Women’s Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina (Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, 1997), especially chapter 5; Nancy Cott, Public Vows: A History of Mar-
riage and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 84–94; Laura F.
Edwards, Scarlett Doesn’t Live Here Anymore: Southern Women in the Civil War Era
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Notes to pages 84–86
233
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 84–94, 133; Tera W. Hunter, To ‘Joy My
Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors Aft er the Civil War (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1997), 23–24; Linda Kerber, No Constitutional Right to be
Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Hill and Wang, 1998), 68;
Zipf, Labor of Innocents, 90–91; and Susan E. O’Donovan, Becoming Free in the Cotton
South (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 166–170, 220–221, 267.
38. Case of George Turner (fm) vs. Hall (wm), November 10, 1866, Hallettsville,
SAC, LS, May–June 1866 and October 1866–March 1868, reel 21; James Oakes, Austin,
to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., May 30, 1867, SAC, LS, May 1867–December 1868, reel 12.
Other examples of agents approaching apprenticed contracts case- by- case include
Case of Dinah Wren (fw) vs. Dr. Hartridge, June 18, 1867, Houston, SAC, ROC, Decem-
ber 1865–December 1868, reel 22; Endorsement of letter from Charles E. Culver, Cotton
Gin, to Charles Griffi
n, July 24, 1867, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Louis
W. Stevenson, Columbus, to James Gillette, Bryan, November 19, 1868, SAC, Letters
Received and Receipts, October–December, 1868, reel 14 (hereaft er LRR); J. P. Richard-
son, A.A.A.G., to J. D. Vernay, Goliad, June 3, 1867, SAC, LS, May 1867–December 1868,
reel 12; and J. W. McConaughey, Wharton, to Captain, February 24, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 9.
39. Farmer, “Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau,” 91; Case of May (fw) vs.
Frank (fm), June 28, 1867, Bryan, SAC, ROC, 1866–1868, reel 14; Henry Young, Austin,
to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., September 11, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; Herbert G.
Gutman, Th
e Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (New York: Pantheon
Books, 1976), 392; Farmer- Kaiser, “With a Weight of Circumstances Like Millstones
About Th
eir Necks,” 420–421, 425; Farmer- Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s
Bureau, 153. For the intricacies of the government’s entry into dependency, see Kather-
ine M. Franke, “Taking Care,” Chicago- Kent Law Review 76 (2001): 1541–1555.
40. Endorsement of letter from William Longworth, Seguin, to William H. Sin-
clair, A.A.G., May 17, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Anthony M.
Bryant, Sherman, to Charles Garretson, A.A.A.G., October 31, 1867, AC, ROC, Sep-
tember–October, 1867, reel 22; Anthony M. Bryant, Sherman, to Charles Garretson,
A.A.A.G., September 30, 1867, AC, ROC, September–October, 1867, reel 22; John Dix,
Corpus Christi, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., February 29, 1868, AC, ROC, January–
February, 1868, reel 24; Isaac Johnson, La Grange, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G.,
November 30, 1867, AC, ROC, November–December, 1867, reel 23; Charles Haughn,
Waco, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., December 31, 1868, AC, ROC, November–
December, 1868, reel 28; Endorsement of letter from J. Orville Shelby, Liberty, to Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 8, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September, 1867, reel 2;
Endorsement of letter from B. A. Brown to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., July 22, 1866,
AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Endorsement of letter from Martha Watt
to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., [Summer 1866], AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867,
reel 2.
41. Farmer-
Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau, 107–108, 112–113; Laura
Edwards, Gendered Strife and Confusion: Th
e Political Culture of Reconstruction
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 50; Noralee Frankel, Freedom’s Women: Black
Women and Family in Civil War Era Mississippi (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
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234
Notes to pages 86–92
1999), 136; Rapport, “Freedmen’s Bureau as a Legal Agent,” 39; Rebecca Scott, “Th
e Battle
Over the Child: Child Apprenticeship and the Freedmen’s Bureau in North Carolina,”
Prologue 10 (Summer 1978): 102.
42. Kosay, “To Degrade and Control,” 73.
43. Scott, “Battle Over the Child,” 110; W. A. Low, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau in the
Border States,” in Radicalism, Racism, and Party Realignment: Th
e Border States Dur-
ing Reconstruction, ed. Richard Curry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1969), 247; Richard Paul Fuke, “Planters, Apprenticeship, and Forced Labor: Th
e Black
Family Under Pressure in Post- Emancipation Maryland,” Agricultural History 62 (Fall
1988): 72–73; Troy Lee Kickler, “Black Children and Northern Missionaries: Freedmen’s
Bureau Agents, Southern Whites in Reconstruction Tennessee, 1865–1869” (Ph.D. diss.,
University of Tennessee, 2003), 150–151; Farmer- Kaiser, “With a Weight of Circum-
stances Like Millstones About Th
eir Necks,” 429; Rapport, “Freedmen’s Bureau as a
Legal Agent,” 39; Kosary, “To Degrade and Control,” 73; Edwards, Gendered Strife and
Confusion, 50; Morgan, Emancipation in Virginia’s Tobacco Belt, 139, 173; Schwalm, A
Hard Fight for We, 251, 254; Farmer- Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau,
128; Zipf, “Reconstructing ‘Free Woman,’ ” 25. More works that criticize Bureau agents
for apprenticing black children are Kickler, “Black Children and Northern Missionar-
ies,” 174; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 237; Famer- Kaiser, “With a Weight of Cir-
cumstances Like Millstones About Th
eir Necks,” 431; and Scott, “Battle Over the
Child,” 101–113.
44. John H. Morrison, Palestine, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., January 31, 1868,
AC, ROC, January–February, 1868, reel 24.
5. Th
e Bureau’s Highwater Mark: Th
e J. B. Kiddoo Era,
November 1866–January 1867
1. Circular No. 9, March 23, 1866, AC, IRB, October
1865–1869, reel 19; Circular
Letter from O. O. Howard, March 2, 1866, AC, Letters Received, 1866–1867, reel 6;
Barry A. Crouch, “Th
e ‘Chords of Love’: Legalizing Black Marital and Family Rights in
Postwar Texas,” Journal of Negro History 79 (Autumn 1994): 334, 338.
2. Circular Letter from O. O. Howard, March 2, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6;
Circular No. 9, March 23, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Franke,
“Taking Care,” 1545; Grossberg, Governing the Hearth, 130; Endorsement of letter from
L. S. Barnes, Crockett, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., June 21, 1866, AC, ES, April
1866–September 1867, reel 2.
3. A. P. Delano, Marlin Falls, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.G., March 26, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; A. P. Delano, Marlin Falls, to J. B. Kiddoo, December 31, 1866,
AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20. For freedpeople marriages, see William J.
Neely, Victoria, to Captain, August 20, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; C. S. Roberts,
A.A.A.G., to William J. Neely, Victoria, August 25, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May
1669, reel 1; and J. W. McConaughey, Wharton, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., May 1,
1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7.
4. Case of Sally King (fw) vs. Bob King (fm), December 21, 1868, Brenham, SAC,
ROC, April–December 1868, reel 14. For cases where the defendant was male, see Case
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Notes to pages 92–94
235
of John Adams (fm) vs. Catherine (fw), May 26, 1868, Houston, SAC, ROC, December
1865–December 1868, reel 22; Case of John Adams (fm) vs. Woody Hunter (fm), May
26, 1868, Houston, SAC, ROC, December 1865–December 1868; Case of George Lewis
(fm) vs. Nellie Lewis (fw), May 23, 1868, Houston, SAC, ROC, December 1865–Decem-
ber 1868. Other cases of divorce/separation are Case of Fansy Edgar (fw) vs. Bob Edgar
(fm), November 1867, Galveston, SAC, LS, January 1867–June 1868, reel 19; Case of
Margaret Aaron (fw) vs. Dennis Aaron (fm), November 6, 1867, Galveston, SAC, LS,
January 1867–June 1868, reel 19; Case of John Coleman (fm) vs. Mary Coleman (fw),
October 21, 1868, Brenham, SAC, ROC, April–December 1868, reel 14; and Case of
Lucinda (fw) vs. Charly Reed (fm), August 22, 1868, Houston, SAC, ROC, June 1867–