A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan (1557-2000)
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A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan
A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan
1557–2000
Victoria R. Bricker
THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS
Salt Lake City
Copyright © 2019 by The University of Utah Press. All rights reserved.
The Defiance House Man colophon is a registered trademark
of The University of Utah Press. It is based on a four-foot-tall
Ancient Puebloan pictograph (late PIII) near Glen Canyon, Utah.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Names: Bricker, Victoria Reifler, 1940- author.
Title: A historical grammar of the Maya language of Yucatan : 1557-2000 /
Victoria R. Bricker.
Description: Salt Lake City : The University of Utah Press, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2017049903 (print) | LCCN 2017051508 (ebook) | ISBN
9781607816256 () | ISBN 9781607816249 (cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Mayan languages—Yucatan Peninsula. | Mayan
languages—Grammar. | Mayan languages—Texts.
Classification: LCC PM3963 (ebook) | LCC PM3963 B71 2018 (print) | DDC
497/.427—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049903
Printed and bound in the United States of America.
CONTENTS
PREFACE xix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1. Terminology 1
2. Sources 1
3. Methodology 3
3.1. Palaeography 3
3.2. Concordances 4
3.3. Dating Grammatical Changes in the Written Record 4
4. Scribes 6
Note 6
CHAPTER 2: ORTHOGRAPHY 7
1. Phonetic Segments 7
2. Orthographic Correspondences 7
2.1. Consonants 7
2.1.1. Velar and Laryngeal “h” 8
2.1.2. Glottal Stop 11
2.1.3. Other Velar Consonants 13
2.1.4. Glides 13
2.1.5. Liquids 14
2.1.6. Voiceless Bilabial Stop and Labiodental Fricative 15
2.1.7. Ejectives 15
2.1.8. Double Consonants 15
2.2. Vowels 16
2.3. Abbreviations 16
Notes 18
CHAPTER 3: PHONOLOGY 19
1. Root-Based Phonological Processes 19
1.1. Canonical Root Shapes 19
1.2. Co-Occurrence Restrictions 20
1.3. Vowel Grades 20
1.4. Affixes 21
1.4.1. Prefixes 21
1.4.2. Suffixes 22
v
vi Contents
2. Phonological Processes 23
2.1. Stems 23
2.2. Consonantal Processes 23
2.2.1. Identical-Consonant Clusters 23
2.2.1.1. Sonorant Clusters 23
2.2.1.2. Obstruent Clusters 23
2.2.1.3. Fricative Clusters 24
2.2.2. Other Consonant Clusters 24
2.2.2.1. Prefixes 25
2.2.2.2. Suffixes 28
2.2.2.2.1. Debuccalization 28
2.2.2.2.2. Vowel Insertion 30
2.2.2.2.3. Liquid Deletion 30
2.2.2.2.4. Interrogatives with -x 31
2.2.2.2.5. Nasal Assimilation 31
2.3. Vocalic Processes 32
2.3.1. The Special Status of Laryngeals 32
2.3.2. Accent and Pitch 34
2.3.2.1. Stress 34
2.3.2.2. Pitch Accent 37
2.3.2.3. Yucatecan Tonogenesis 40
2.3.3. Evidence for Schwa in Colonial Yucatec 43
3. Summary of Phonological Changes Through Time 45
Notes 46
CHAPTER 4: PRONOUNS 47
1. Dependent Pronouns 47
1.1. Dependent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec 47
1.2. Dependent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec 50
1.3. Historical Change in Clitic Pronouns 53
2. Independent Pronouns 54
2.1. Independent Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec 54
2.2. Independent Pronouns in Modern Yucatec 54
2.3. Historical Change in Independent Pronouns 54
3. Indirect Object Pronouns 55
4. Stative Pronouns 56
5. Independent Possessive Pronouns 57
6. Reflexive Pronouns 58
7. Demonstrative Pronouns 58
8. Interrogative and Relative Pronouns 59
9. Indefinite Pronouns 62
9.1. Indefinite Pronouns in Colonial Yucatec 62
9.2. Indefinite Pronouns in Modern Yucatec 64
9.3. The Historical Status of Topicalized Indefinite Pronouns 65
10. Summary of Pronominal Changes Through Time 66
Contents vii
CHAPTER 5: TENSE/ASPECT AND MOOD 67
1. Aspectual Verb Stems 67
1.1. Intransitive Verbs 67
1.1.1. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec 67
1.1.2. Aspectual Inflection of Intransitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec 70
1.1.3. The Prophetic Future Marked by -om 73
1.2. Transitive Verbs 73
1.2.1. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Colonial Yucatec 73
1.2.2. Aspectual Inflection of Transitive Verbs in Modern Yucatec 77
1.2.3. Semantic Implications of Aspectual and Mood Suffixes 81
2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles 82
2.1. Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem 82
2.1.1. The Functional Difference Between t(i)- and Ø-Perfective Stems 82
2.1.2. Historical Change in Aspectual Clitic Particles Associated with the Perfective Stem 89
2.2. Aspectual Head Words and Clitic Particles Associated with the Imperfective Stem 91
2.2.1. Historical Change in Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Imperfective Stem 94
2.3. Aspectual Head Words Associated with the Subjunctive Stem 98
3. Semantic Implications of Aspect in Modern Yucatec 101
4. The “Present Tense” 104
4.1. Coronel’s Paradigm of the “Present Tense” 104
4.2. The Use of the “Present Tense” to Express Intention 106
5. Aspectual Stem Suffixes in Adverbial Focus Contexts 107
5.1. Intransitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles 108
5.2. Transitive Stem Suffixes that Co-Occur with Focused Adverbial Particles 116
6. The Vanishing Historical Past 120
7. Summary of Changes in Aspectual Head Words and Suffixes Through Time 121
Notes 121
CHAPTER 6: INTRANSITIVE VERBS 123
1. Root Intransitives 123
1.1. Verbs of Motion 123
1.2. Other Root Intransitives 125
2. Derived Intransitives 126
2.1. Derived Intransitives Based on Root Transitives 126
2.2. Inchoatives or Versives 126
&nbs
p; 2.2.1. Inchoatives Derived with -h 126
2.2.2. Inchoatives Derived with -ch-ah 128
2.2.3. Inchoatives Derived with -tal 129
2.3. Celeritives 131
2.4. Agentless Passives 133
3. Other Intransitives 135
4. Pluralization 135
5. Intransitive Compounds 136
6. Intransitive Phrases 138
7. Summary of Changes in Intransitive Verbs Through Time 140
Notes 140
viii Contents
CHAPTER 7: TRANSITIVE VERBS 141
1. Voice 141
1.1. Voice in Root Transitives 141
1.1.1. The Active Voice of Root Transitives 141
1.1.2. The Passive Voice of Root Transitives 142
1.1.3. The Antipassive Voice of Root Transitives 148
1.1.4. The Middle Voice of Root Transitives 151
1.2. Voice in Derived Transitives 152
1.2.1. Voice in Causative Stems Derived from Root Intransitives 152
1.2.1.1. The Active Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives 152
1.2.1.2. The Passive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives 153
1.2.1.3. The Antipassive Voice in Causatives Derived from Root Intransitives 154
1.2.1.4. Voice in Other Causative Stems 155
1.2.1.4.1. Voice in Causatives Derived from Celeritive Stems 155
1.2.1.4.2. Voice in Causatives Marked by -bes 156
1.2.2. Voice in Transitives Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems 157
1.2.2.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns 157
1.2.2.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns 158
1.2.2.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Nouns 159
1.2.3. The Passive Voice in Transitive Roots with a Medial Laryngeal 162
1.2.4. Voice in Transitive Verbs Derived from Root Transitives 165
1.2.5. Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans 166
1.2.5.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans 166
1.2.5.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans 167
1.2.5.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Spanish Loans 167
1.2.6. Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and Affects 168
1.2.6.1. The Active Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and
Affects 168
1.2.6.2. The Passive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and
Affects 170
1.2.6.3. The Antipassive Voice in Transitives Derived from Adjectives, Particles, Positionals, and
Affects 171
2. Usative Verbs 171
3. Defective Verbs 173
3.1. Defective and Normal Versions of kat 173
3.2. Defective and Normal Versions of ohel 175
3.3. Defective and Normal Versions of kah=ol 176
4. Pluralization 177
5. Transitive Compounds 178
5.1. Noun Incorporation 178
5.2. Adjective Incorporation 181
5.3. Transitive Compounds with Two Transitive Roots 183
5.4. Dialectal Variation in the Formation of Compounds in the Calepino de Motul 184
6. Transitive Phrases 185
7. Summary of Changes in Transitive Verbs Through Time 186
Notes 187
Contents ix
CHAPTER 8: NOUNS 188
1. Nominal Roots 188
1.1. Inflection for Possession 188
1.2. Other Considerations 192
1.2.1. Body-Part Terms 192
1.2.2. Kinship Terms 194
1.2.3. Reflexive and Reciprocal Nouns 196
2. Derived Nouns 197
2.1. Agentive Nouns 197
2.1.1. Marking Agentive Nouns for Ownership with -nal 198
2.1.2. Agentives Marked by -yah 200
2.2. Instrumental Nouns 200
2.3. Abstract Nouns 202
2.3.1. Abstract Nouns Derived from Adjectival Roots and Stems 202
2.3.2. Abstract Nouns Derived from Nominal Roots and Stems 204
2.3.3. Abstract Nouns Derived from Particle Roots and Stems 205
2.3.4. Abstract Nouns Derived from Transitive Roots 206
2.3.5. Abstract Nouns Derived from Intransitive Stems 206
2.4. Verbal Nouns 206
2.5. Relational Nouns 208
2.6. Noun Classifiers 210
2.6.1. Noun Classifiers with Faunal Terms 210
2.6.1.1. Avian Terms 210
2.6.1.1.1. Avian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah 210
2.6.1.1.2. An Avian Term that Co-Occurs with Ix 211
2.6.1.1.3. Avian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 211
2.6.1.2. Mammalian Terms 212
2.6.1.2.1. Mammalian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah 212
2.6.1.2.2. Mammalian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 213
2.6.1.3. Reptilian Terms 214
2.6.1.3.1. Reptilian Terms that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix 214
2.6.1.3.2. Reptilian Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 215
2.6.1.4. Terms for Insects and Worms 215
2.6.1.4.1. Terms for Insects and Worms that Co-Occur with Ah 215
2.6.1.4.2. Terms for Insects that Co-Occur with Ix 216
2.6.1.4.3. Terms for Insects and Worms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 216
2.6.1.5. Terms for Fish 218
2.6.1.5.1. Terms for Fish that Co-Occur with Ah or Ix 218
2.6.1.5.2. Terms for Fish that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 218
2.6.2. Noun Classifiers with Botanical Terms 218
2.6.2.1. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ah 218
2.6.2.2. Botanical Terms that Co-Occur with Ix 219
2.6.2.3. Botanical Terms that Do Not Co-Occur with Noun Classifiers 219
2.6.3. The Function of Ah and Ix in Faunal and Botanical Terms 220
2.6.4. Toponyms 222
2.6.4.1. Toponyms that Co-Occur with Ix 222
x Contents
2.6.4.2. Toponyms that Do Not Co-Occur with Ix 223
2.6.5. Noun Classifiers with Disease Terms 226
3. Nominal Compounds 226
3.1. Double Noun Compounds 227
3.2. Adjective-Plus-Noun Compounds 228
4. Nominal Phrases 230
5. Summary of Changes in Nouns Through Time 232
Notes 232
CHAPTER 9: NUMBERS AND NUMERAL CLASSIFIERS 233
1. Number Words 233
2. Numeral Classifiers 237
2.1. The Structure of Numeral Classifier Phrases 237
2.2. Numeral Classifiers as Surrogate Adverbs in Colonial Yucatec 241
2.3. Historical Change in Numeral Classifiers 244
Notes 245
CHAPTER 10: ADJECTIVES 247
1. Adjectival Roots 247
2. Derived Adjectives 250
2.1. Adjectives Marked by -il 250
2.1.1. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -il 250
2.1.2. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -il 251
2.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -tzil 252
2.3. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -liz 253
2.4. Adjectives Marked by -ach or -Vch 254
2.4.1. Adjectives Derived from Adjectival Roots with -ach or -Vch 254
2.4.2. Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots with -ach 255
2.5. Adjectives Marked by -ben 256
2.5.1. Potential Adjectives Derived from Nominal Roots 256