A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan (1557-2000)
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p’àak
tomato Lycopersicon esculentum Miller
síʔisim
Artemisia vulgaris L.
š tèes
Amaranthus spinosus L.
yaʔ
sapote Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg
2.6.3. THE FUNCTION OF AH AND IX IN FAUNAL AND BOTANICAL TERMS. Exactly half of the monolexemic
avian terms in the Calepino de Motul co-occur with the noun classifier, ah (23 of 46 terms). In addition, 25
compound avian terms co-occur with this classifier. Only one avian monolexemic term co-occurs with ix.
Clearly, there was a strong relationship between avian terms of both kinds and ah in Colonial Yucatec.
The data for other kinds of faunal terms are less clear, but, in general, ah was more common than ix
with them as well.
The two monolexemic and eight compound botanical terms that co-occur with ix in the Calepino de
Motul suggest that ix had a stronger relationship with botanical terms than ah in Colonial Yucatec. This
observation is corroborated by a much larger source of botanical terms, the Book of Chilam Balam of Kaua,
which contains the names of 398 different plants (V. Bricker and Miram 2002:477–485). As in the Calepino
de Motul, the botanical terms that did not co-occur with noun classifiers greatly outnumbered those had
had them (375 versus 23).4 Of the ones that did co-occur with noun classifiers, only two botanical terms
co-occurred with h:
NOUNS 221
(105) Botanical term
Gloss
h beb
Pisonia aculeata L.
h uas
Crescentia cujete L.
Four terms co-occurred with ix, and the remaining 17 co-occurred with x. Clearly, by the end of the eigh-
teenth century, to which the extant version of the Kaua can be dated, ah and ix were well along in the
process of being reduced to h and x, respectively, and (i)x had a much stronger relationship to botanical
terms than (a)h.
It should be noted that only eight of the 23 botanical terms with (i)x were monolexemic:
(106) Botanical term
Gloss
x contaci
kumquat Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Berry
x hail
Ipomoea meyeri (Spreng.) Don
x hoyoc
Morinda yucatanensis Greenm.
x jouen
Spondias purpurea L.
x kanan
firebush Hamelia patens Jacq.
x pak-um-pak
spurge Euphorbia dioica HBK
x tuhuy
frangipani Plumeria pudica Jacq.
The remaining 15 botanical terms with (i)x are compounds (see 3. below), of which the following are
examples:
(107) Botanical term
Gloss
ix cacal=tun
wild basil Ocimum micranthum Willd.
x cambal=hau
Dorstenia contrajerva L.
x bolom=x al
air pine Tillandsia streptophylla Schweidw.
ix nix=che
sea grape Cocoloba uvifera (L.) Jacq.
x om=ak
Gouania lupuloides (L.) Urb.
x ta=canil
wild grape Cissus sicyoides L.
x tzotzel=ak
Merrenia dissecta (Jacq.) Hallier f.
Our systematic collection of botanical terms based on voucher specimens has also documented
the strong relationship between the Modern cognate of ix and monolexemic botanical terms and the
even stronger relationship between this noun classifier and compound terms for plants (V. Bricker et al.
1998:320–328). Our botanical database for Hocaba is also large enough that it is possible to identify pho-
nological processes that may account for the absence of š in some botanical terms.
Table 8-1 shows that monolexemic nouns represent 31 percent (N = 127) of the total sample of botan-
ical terms and that only 21 percent (N = 27) of the 127 monolexemic nouns in the sample co-occur with
either š (N = 24) or h (N= 3). On the other hand, nominal compounds constitute 64 percent of the total sam-
ple (N = 260), of which 64 percent (N = 167) co-occur with either š (N = 164) or h (N = 3). Clearly, h co-occurs
only rarely with both monolexemic and compound nouns, with only six examples in 387 botanical terms,
and compounds are more than twice as likely as monolexemic nouns to co-occur with š (64 percent versus
31 percent). This suggests that š has become the marker of compound plant terms in Modern Yucatec.
In this large database of 405 botanical terms, none of the terms beginning with [š] (N = 40) or [s] (N =
21) co-occur with š because [š] is routinely deleted when followed by another fricative (see 2.2.1.3. in Chap-
ter 3). This phonological process accounts for the absence of š in 61 botanical terms, which represents 15
percent of the total.
222 NOUNS
Table 8-1. Botanical terms in the Hocaba Dialect of Modern Yucatec.
+ š
+ h
- h/š
Total
Nouns
24
3
100
127
Noun Compounds
164
3
93
260
Noun Phrases
0
0
18
18
Total
188
6
211
405
Botanical noun phrases do not begin with either h or š:
(108) Botanical term
Gloss
y àak’ wakaš
Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce
uy òop’ ȼíimin
Heteropteris beecheyana Juss.
u čáʔakil k’áaš
Maranta arundinacea L.
u k’éʔewil ȼ’íiȼ’il čeʔ
Phoradendron quadrangulare (HBK) Krug & Urban; Phoradendron vernicosum
Greenm.
u nal t’èel
Zea mays L.
u šàanaʔ ȼoʔ
Kallistroemia maxima (L.) Torrey & Gray
u šìiw čamal k’ìin
Passiflora foetida var. gossypiifolia (Desv.) Masters
However, three examples of the 18 noun phrases mentioned in Table 8-1 have embedded expressions
beginning with š (š túuluʔ, š táab’ay, and š nùuk):
(109) Botanical term
Gloss
u sàandyáah š túuluʔ Melothria pendula L.; Memordica charantia L.
u šáačeʔ š táab’ay
Pithecoctenium crucigerum (L.) A. Gentry
u šóol teʔ š nùuk
Hyptia suaveolens (L.) Poit.
The structure of noun phrases is described in 4. below.
2.6.4. TOPONYMS. Many toponyms are mentioned in Colonial documents. In some cases, they were com-
posed of animal or plant terms, but in others, the referents were features of the landscape, such as sources
of water, unusual rock formations, mounds, and other kinds of natural phenomena, such as rainbows.
2.6.4.1. TOPONYMS THAT CO-OCCUR WITH IX. Toponyms can be identified most easily by the locative par-
ticles, ti (phonetic [tiʔ]) ‘to, at, in, from, for’ and te (phonetic [teʔ]) ‘there,’ that often preceded them in Colonial Yucatec. If the nouns that followed them also co-occurred with ix, then the vowels in both particles
assimilated to the vowel in ix, resulting in tix.
Three faunal toponyms in my Colonial Yucatecan sample co-occur with ix:
(110) Toponym
Gloss
tix can
place of worms
tix kokob
place of vipers
place of turtledoves
NOUNS 223
Six botanical toponyms co-occurred with ix in Colonial Yucatec:
(111) Toponym
Gloss
tix bal=che
at the Lonchocarpus logistylis Pittier tree
tix cacau=che
at the cacao tree
tix cocom
at the vine with yellow flowers
tix contaci
at the kumquat tree
tix hun=ɔit kuk
at one sprout
tix kum=che
at the Jacaratia mexicana DC tree
Not all toponyms that co-occurred with ix in Colonial Yucatec referred to animals or plants:
(112) Toponym
Gloss
tix chel
at the rainbow
tix ualah=tun
at the upright stone
Roys (1957:185–186) lists a number of other toponyms that co-occurred with (i)x that I have not been
able to translate and therefore classify. Among them, are two toponyms of undoubted Postconquest date
because they are based on Spanish loans:
(113) Toponym
Gloss
x caret
inlet (< caleta)
x noria
draw well (< noria)
The Hocaba dictionary mentions two faunal toponyms that co-occur with š, the cognate of ix, in Mod-
ern Yucatec:
(114) Toponym
Gloss
š číʔičiʔ
a type of worm
š k’óʔok’ob’
viper
The first toponym is the name of the hacienda Chichi. The second refers to the town of Tixkokob.
Two botanical toponyms that co-occur with š are also listed in the Hocaba dictionary:
(115) Toponym
Gloss
š háʔasil
banana grove
š k’aš
Randia longiloba Hemsl.
The suffix, -il, in the first toponym has the same function as the locative particles, tiʔ and teʔ; the toponym
refers to the town of X Hazil. The second toponym refers to the town of Tekax.
2.6.4.2. TOPONYMS THAT DO NOT CO-OCCUR WITH IX. Of the many toponyms that did not co-occur with
ix, only seven had faunal referents in Colonial Yucatec:
(116) Toponym
Gloss
box=cħen
well of bass fish
chic=xulub
devil’s flea
224 NOUNS
soɔil
place of bats
te ~ ti cay
place of fish
te coh
place of pumas
te max
place of monkeys
ti tzimin
place of tapirs
Nine botanical toponyms that did not co-occur with ix were introduced by te or ti:
(117) Toponym
Gloss
te kanto
at the reed grass
te max
place of wild chillis
te pakam
at the cactus
te ~ ti xan
place of palms
te ya
at the zapote tree
ti cul[ul]
at the cactus
ti haas
at the mamey tree
ti pox
at the Annona squamosa L.
ti ppoppox
at the Tragia glanduligera Pax & Hoffman
Two botanical toponyms were marked by -il, instead of being introduced by te or ti:
(118) Toponym
Gloss
akil
patch of vines
kikil
place of rubber tree
And eight botanical toponyms had no special marking for place:
(119) Toponym
Gloss
bak=halal
surrounded by reeds
ɔit=has
a single mamey tree
ɔit=mop
a single wine palm
cħelem
a type of agave
ek=balam
Croton miradorensis Muell. Arg.
kuxbil=ha
water by the annatto tree
pixoy
Guazama ulmifolia Lam.
tzuc=op
grove of custard apple trees
Eleven toponyms referred to sources of water:
(120) Toponym
Gloss
cħocħol=[h]a
stony well
pach=[h]a
behind the watering place
panab=[h]a
excavated watering place
panab=cħen
excavated well
sah=cab=[h]a
lime-quarry watering place
tħotħbil=[h]a
frog watering place
NOUNS 225
xel=ha inlet
xuchbil=[h]a
potable water
y al=cab=[h]a
chachalaca watering place
yax=[h]a
green water
y ok bos
above the bubbling spring
Four toponyms referred to other kinds of landmarks:
(121) Toponym
Gloss
çuy=tun
immovable rocks
na=balam
jaguar lair
ppus=tunich
hunch-backed stone dwarf
te ~ ti kal
stone house with masonry roof
Given the stability of toponyms through time, a similar distribution of them across the categories — fau-
nal, botanical, water sources, and landmarks — characterizes them in Modern Yucatec. Faunal toponyms
that do not co-occur with š are also poorly represented in the Hocaba dialect of this language:
(122) Toponym
Gloss
č’ik=šulub’
devil’s flea [name of town: Chicxulub]
mul=sàay
carpenter-ant hill [name of ranch: Mulsay]
sayil
place with ants [name of town: Sayil]
Nine botanical toponyms that do not co-occur with š appear in the Hocaba dictionary of Modern
Yucatec:
(123) Toponym
Gloss
ʔàak’il
patch of vines [name of town: Akil]
čak=mul
a type of plant [name of hamlet: Chacmul]
čùun=huhub’
trunk of Cuban pine Pinus caribaea Morelet [name of town: Chunhuhub]
č’èelem
a type of agave [name of town: Cħelem]
noh=k’íʔik’
big rubber tree [name of town; Noh Kik]
pìišoy
Guazama ulmifolia Lam. [name of town: Pixoy]
p’óop’oš
Tragia glanduligera Pax & Hoffman [name of town: Ppoppox]
síináʔan=čeʔ
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm. [name of town: Sinaanché]
teʔ šáʔan
place of palms [name of hacienda: Texan]
Eight toponyms in the Hocaba dictionary of Modern Yucatec refer to sources of water:
(124) Toponym
Gloss
b’olon=č’éʔen
nine wells [name of town: Bolonchén]
čan=k’òom
little hollow [name of town: Chan Kom]
č’óoč’ol=[h]aʔ
stony watering place [name of town: Chocholá]
hóʔol=kaʔ
stone pond for chickens and pigs [name of town: Holcá]
páanab’=[h]aʔ
excavated watering place [name of town: Panabá]
sah=kab’=[h]aʔ
lime-quarry watering place [name of town: Sahcabá]
226 NOUNS
šel=haʔ
inlet [name of inlet in Quintana Roo: Xelhá]
y óok’ ȼ’onóʔot
above the sinkhole [name of town: Yokdzonot]
Five toponyms in the Hocaba dictionary of Modern Yucatec mention stone landmarks:
(125) Toponym
Gloss
b’uʔ=tun
rocky field [name of ranch: Butún]
ȼ’íib’il čáal=tun
inscribed stone [name of archaeological site north of Merida: Dzibilchaltún]
h k’àal
stone house with masonry roof [name of town: Tekal or Tikal]
p’us=tùunič
stone arch [name of town: Ppustunich]
šúʔuk’ub’
marker stone [name of hacienda: Xukú]
2.6.5. NOUN CLASSIFIERS WITH DISEASE TERMS. The noun classifier, (i)x, co-occurred with a few terms
for diseases in Colonial Yucatec. Three such terms were mentioned by the eighteenth-century Franciscan
grammarian, Beltrán de Santa Rosa María (1746:167–172):
(126) Disease term
Gloss
ix kulim=caan
nosebleed
ix mumuuz
hemorrhoids
ix tħuch=kak
easily cured pox
Four other terms for diseases that co-occurred with (i)x appear in the Book of Chilam Balam of Kaua
(V. Bricker and Miram 2002):
(127) Disease term
Gloss
x ca=muk olal
irritability
x muɔ
twitching
ix nacħ=bac=coc
phthisis, tuberculosis
x tuu=tamnel
rotten liver
x muɔ (phonetic [š mùuȼ’]) serves as the name of the touch-sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica L., in Modern
Yucatec (V. Bricker et al. 1998:187).
The occasional co-occurrence of š with disease terms is also documented in the Hocaba dictionary of
Modern Yucatec:
(128) Disease term
Gloss
š ʔéeʔ=péeȼ’
measles
š kam=pàač
backache
š kok=séʔen
dry cough
3. NOMINAL COMPOUNDS
The most common types of nominal compounds in Colonial Yucatec contain two nouns or an adjective and
a noun.
NOUNS 227
3.1. DOUBLE NOUN COMPOUNDS. Most of the noun-plus-noun compounds contain two common nouns:
(129) First Noun
Second Noun
Compound
akab
nic
ix akab=nic
‘night’
‘flower’
‘night-blooming jasmine’
al
mehen al=mehen
‘woman’s child’
‘man’s child’
‘noble descent’
atan
beel atan=beel
‘wife’
‘road, way’
‘marital life [with a wife]’
baal
cah baal=cah
‘thing, contents’
‘town, place’
‘world’
çabim
be