coiled, twisted
cul-cabal kul-ukb’al
seated
ɔan-cabal
ȼ’an-akb’al
piled up, assembled
ɔoz-cabal
ȼ’os-okb’al
settled
POSITIONALS 285
chin-cabal
čin-ikb’al
bowed, humbled
cħeb-cabal
č’eb-ekb’al
tilted, leaning
eɔ-cabal
ʔeȼ’-ekb’al
seated firmly
hau-cabal haw-akb’al
face up
hay-cabal hay-akb’al
spread out, extended
hocħ-cabal hoč’-okb’al
fallen
hot-cabal hot-okb’al
uncovered, exposed
kech-cabal
k’eč-ekb’al
twisted
mec-cabal mek-ekb’al
twisted, bent
mech-cabal meč-ekb’al
twisted, bent
met-cabal met-ekb’al
twisted, curled
motħ-cabal mot’-okb’al
stooped, squatting
nac-cabal nak-akb’al
leaning
pac-cabal pak-akb’al
face down
pacħ-cabal pač’-akb’al
spread out
pec-cabal pek-ekb’al
laid flat
ppoh-cabal
p’oh-okb’al
bent over
ppuuz-cabal
p’us-ukb’al
bent, arched
ticħ-cabal tič’-ikb’al
placed on high
tħon-cabal
t’on-okb’al
humble, meek
tħub-cabal
t’ub’-ukb’al
submerged
tħuch-cabal
t’uč-ukb’al
perched suddenly
ua[l]-cabal waʔal-akb’al
erect, upright
xac-cabal šak-akb’al
bent over to ground
xol-cabal šol-okb’al
supported; kneeling
Some examples of their use in context appear below:
(6a)
way wáʔalakb’aleč ká h k’učeneʔ
‘you were standing here when I arrived’ (Blair and Vermont-Salas 1967:697)
(6b)
b’eʔòoráaʔ tíʔ čilikb’al wal t u k’àaneʔ
‘right now he’s probably lying down there in his hammock’ (Blair and Vermont-Salas 1967:672)
It should be noted that positional adjectives underwent a less complex change in the transition from Colo-
nial Yucatec to Mopan, involving only the reduction of the bilabial ejective in the suffix to a glottal stop:
-cabal — > -kaʔal, as in waʔ-kaʔal ‘standing’ (from Colonial ua-cabal) (Hofling 2011:452).
2. POSITIONAL VERBS
Positional verbs were formally intransitive in Colonial Yucatec, and the same is true of positional verbs in
Modern Yucatec.
2.1. POSITIONAL VERBS IN COLONIAL YUCATEC. The principal derivational suffix for positional verbs was
-l in Colonial Yucatec, and it appeared in both perfective and subjunctive stems. It was followed by -ah in
perfective stems:
286 POSITIONALS
(7a)
çuɔ-l-ah-i can
‘the snake was stretched out’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 110v)
(7b) kaat-l-ah-i che t u co ocom
‘a tree lay across the fork of the pole’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 239v)
(7c)
mucħ-l-ah-i tanam y alan booy
‘the sheep piled up in the shade’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 311r)
(7d)
caanil kan cum-l-ah-ci pop
‘on 4 Kan, Pop was seated’ (Gordon 1913:76)
The subjunctive suffix of positional verbs was marked by -l-ac:
(8a)
lai ma cu[l]-l-ac-en cuchi ca vilah v talel
‘scarcely had I sat down when I saw him come’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 260v)
(8b)
ca bin cum-l-ac v yanal katun
‘and another katun will be seated’ (Gordon 1913:45)
(8c) coy-l-ac te t u ɔamoob
‘they might be tilted there in their thrones’ (Gordon 1913:107)
The imperfective stem of positional verbs was marked by -tal in Colonial Yucatec:
(9a)
amal ni che u cul-tal cħicħ
‘on each point of the tree sits a bird’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 36v)
(9b)
hunab u chel-tal
‘he lies down alone’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 195v)
(9c)
lic tun yn cum-tal t in kan=che
‘I sit on my stool’ (Gordon 1913:66)
2.2. POSITIONAL VERBS IN MODERN YUCATEC. The stem suffixes of positional verbs are -tal (imperfec-
tive), -l-ah (perfective), and -l-ak (subjunctive) in Modern Yucatec. Their use with the positional root, čil ‘lie
down,’ is shown in (10a–c) below:
(10a) tàak u či[l]-tal wal t u k’àanoʔ
‘he’s probably lying down there in his hammock’ (Blair and Vermont-Salas 1967: 692)
(10b) hač ʔáak’ab’čah ka či[l]-l-ah-en wenel
‘it was late when I lay down to sleep’ (Blair and Vermont-Salas 1967: 691)
(10c) teneʔ wá b’íin či[l]-l-ak-en b’eʔòoráaʔ maʔ táan iŋ wenel
‘as for me, if I will lie down now, I won’t sleep’ (Blair and Vermont-Salas 1967: 691)
POSITIONALS 287
3. SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN POSITIONALS THROUGH TIME
The only change in positionals involved converting the suffix that derived positional adjectives from posi-
tional roots in Colonial Yucatec from -cabal to -Vkb’al in Modern Yucatec. The earliest evidence of this
change in my database can be dated to 1850:
(11a) t u men hach talan keban u cimsal cristiano etas xolocbal u con u kaba in yume
‘because it is a most grievous sin for a Christian to be killed while kneeling [and] mentioning my
Father’s name’ (V. Bricker 1981a:194, lines 245–247)
(11b) t u men llan y et=sihsahbilob xolocbalob u kat u kaba in yum cat cimsahob
‘because there were fellow-creatures kneeling [and] calling my Father’s name when they were
killed’ (V. Bricker 1981a:201, lines 479–482)
(11c) ma helecbaleni
‘I am not resting’ (V. Bricker 1981a:201, line 495)
CHAPTER 12
AFFECTS
Like other Mayan languages, Colonial and Modern Yucatec have a semantically defined class of verbs and
related adjectives known as “affects” that are morphologically distinct from other verbs and adjectives.
Laughlin’s (1975:26) description of the function of verbal affects in Tzotzil applies equally well to Yucatecan
Maya: “Affective verbs are used characteristically in narrative description with a certain gusto, a desire to
convey a vivid impression. They have dash.” Adjectival affects were first identified in Yucatecan Maya by
Hanks (1982). More recently, it has become clear that color compounds represent a subclass of adjectival
affects (V. Bricker 1999).
1. VERBAL AFFECTS
1.1. VERBAL AFFECTS IN COLONIAL YUCATEC. The semantic characteristics of two kinds of intransitive verbs
in Colonial Yucatec qualified them to be classified as affects. One of them was marked by -m in its imper-
fective and perfective stems. The other was marked by -ancil or -ancal in its imperfective stem, but took the
antipassive suffix -n in its perfective stem.
1.1.1. VERBAL AFFECTS MARKED BY -M. The -m affects are listed in the first two columns of Table 12-1, with
the -m-al su
ffixes that mark their imperfective stem. Some examples of their use in context appear below:
(1a)
bax ma tan y ulmal au olex cex ah çipile
‘why don’t you sinners become soft-hearted?’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 451r)
(1b)
bax tħan a xaxmal
‘why are you passing to one side while encircling?’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 456r)
(1c)
taanbez buul ca maac v xohmal
‘mix the beans with lime so that they do not become worm-eaten!’ (Ciudad Real 1600?: fol. 411r)
(1d)
ca nabes y o[k]ol ax v chuuchmal t u menel lae
‘you may smear it over the wart; it shrinks because of this’ (Kaua n.d.:II,45L)
288
AFFECTS
289
Table 12-1. Colonial affect verbs and related adjectives in the Calepino de Motul (Ciudad Real 1600?).
Verb
Gloss
Adjective
Gloss
acħmal
become juicy, greasy
___
aymal
become sticky, greasy, bright with
aayci
juicy, greasy, sticky
grease
akmal
become humid, greasy
aakci
humid, greasy
almal
become soft (wax) [in sun or fire]
___
bahmal
become hard, dry [like clay]; shrink, babahci
hard, stiff (dough, bread,
shrivel (limb, skin, needlework)
mud, wood, tree), unyielding,
shrunken (skin, limb)
bakmal
become entangled, snarled; move
___
back and forth
___
babaici
smooth, combed (hair)
___
bibici
slightly patched ?
bilmal
go along flinging weeds, plants,
bibilci
trampled, dragged along
or corn
bixmal
become hard (beans)
___
bohmal
become dessicated (wound, skin,
bobohci
drying, dessicating (wound); dry
parchment)
(bark of trees); filthy
botħmal
become bruised
___
buɔmal
stink of smoke
___
canmal
become hard (clay, bread)
cancanci
swollen (body part), tightened,
hard (clay, wood, stone);
disheveled (hair)
cibmal
become stained, soiled (clothes)
cicibci
filthy, dirty
ciɔmal
become filthy, stained (clothes)
___
___
cicipci
smooth, slippery (soap)
___
cocotzci
brittle, fragile, easily burst
(cord, thread)
___
cocoɔci
rolled up (parchment)
___
cocohci
tight, compressed, tightly
pressed, thick (closely spaced
stakes)
___
cocolci
loose
copmal
become coiled like a hoop
cocopci
arched, bent, folded
cucmal
faint, swoon (patient); become
cucucci
fainting, swooning
worn out, frayed (cloth)
290 AFFECTS
Table 12-1. (cont’d) Colonial affect verbs and related adjectives in the Calepino de Motul.
Verb
Gloss
Adjective
Gloss
cucmal
become very ripe
cucucci
very ripe (fruit)
___
cucutzci
unravelled at top or bottom
(cloth)
cuchmal
become rusty (knife, needle)
cucuchci
taken treacherously
cuymal
harden, become hardened (fruit
cucuyci
hardened (fruit); clumsy (man
without ripening)
walking)
___
cuculci
hard, hardened (abscess,
pimple, boil)
___
cuculci
noisy, clattering
___
çaçahci
dry, parched by the sun (leaves
of tree)
çaɔmal
become stretched, extended
___
çalmal
become dry (clothes, earth)
çabçalci
drying after being wet {çalçalci
misspelled}
çijmal
dry out (tobacco leaves over hot
çiçici
very parched (plant)
coals, leaves on tree, vegetation in
cornfield in hot sun)
çizmal
become chilled
cicizci
very parched (plant) {çiçiçci
misspelled}
çikmal
become disarranged, disheveled
___
___
çinçinci
extended, stretched
çoohmal
become dry dessicated, withered
___
çotmal
become pot-bellied, dropsical
çozotci
swollen, full of air (wine bag),
bloated, overfed (beast)
inflated, stuffed (stomach full
of food or gas)
___
cuzulci
soft, very ripe (fruit) {çuzulci
misspelled}
tzamal
run out, become exhausted little by ___
little (food)
tzatzmal
become rough, not polished (work)
___
tzaymal
stick to something
tzaytzayci
very sticky
___
tzitzici
unravelled
tzihmal
reek of urine
___
___
ɔaɔaci
humid
AFFECTS
291
Table 12-1. (cont’d) Colonial affect verbs and related adjectives in the Calepino de Motul.
Verb
Gloss
Adjective
Gloss
ɔibmal
go along smoothing the bitumen or ___
road
ɔucmal
become, damp, moist, humid
___
ɔuɔmal
wither away, shrivel up
___
chalma
become loose (tied object), be
___
alleviated (illness, pain, hardship)
{chalmal misspelled ?}
chijmil ol
become angry
___
chochmal
go about loosening tied objects
___
chohmal
shoe horse
___
chokmal
grow thickly, densely (corn, plants)
___
chuchmal
rot, wither (fruit, flower)
___
___
cħacħaci
remembering or learning
quickly
cħalmal
melt (wax, grease)
chacchalci
melting in sun or fire (wax,
grease) {cħacħalci misspelled}
___
cħachapci
greasy, dirty, filthy, stained with
filth {cħacħapci misspelled}
___
cħecħehci
very close together, tight,
compact
___
chenchenci
very calm, peaceful {cħencħenci
misspelled}
cħecħmal
wither, decay (corn)
___
cħomal
putrify, suppurate (wound)
___
cħulmal
ooze, leak
___
eɔmal ol
pacify, calm
___
hacmal
slip, slide
hahacci
slippery, slick
___
hahaci
shiny (knife, glossy horse,
combed hair of a woman)
{hahaɔci misspelled ?}
hatħmal
collapse, smash (figs)
___
haxmal
wither, dry up (plants); curl, twist
hahaxci
curly
(hair)
292 AFFECTS
Table 12-1. (cont’d) Colonial affect verbs and related adjectives in the Calepino de Motul.
Verb
Gloss
Adjective
Gloss
haymal
become soft, flattened (very ripe
___
fruit that falls from the tree onto
hard surface)
heppmal
creak, squeak (wood)
heheppci
creaking, squeaking
hijzmal
ravel (linen or other cloth), fuzz
___
(rope from friction)
hootzmal
frown in anger
___
hokmal
be caught, hooked
___
hokmal
rot (plants, roots, pumpkins)
___
hólmal
become slippery, smooth
holholci
slippery, smooth
hoxmal
be rough
hoxhoxci
rough
___
huhucħci
dense, thick, close-woven
( blanket, basket)
___
huhutħci
narrow, tight (road)
kahmal
dry, parch in sun (corn, bananas)
___
kahmal
dry up, wither, parch in the sun
___
or with fire (plants, meat, fruits
to preserve them for the future)
{kakmal misspelled}
___
kakaxci
tied very tightly
kechmal
become twisted, deviated
___
kijchmal
rust
___
kohmal
mask, disguise oneself
___
kuunmal
become soft
___
___
lalabci
rotten (plants, roots)
lacmal
coagulate, curdle; become blunt
láclácci
coagulating, curdling
or dull
lappmal
become tighter, stronger (bindings
___
of thatched houses)
A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan (1557-2000) Page 48