Why People Die By Suicide
Page 30
suicidality, but to inform us about human nature in general. There
are general psychological phenomena that may be invisible in the ab-
sence of dysfunction; for example, the study of people who have lost
their memories through accidents has contributed greatly to the un-
derstanding of normal memory processes. Likewise, an understand-
ing of why some people would wish to end their own lives must cer-
tainly contribute to an understanding of human nature in general.
The need to belong and to contribute in some way to society seems
to be an essential part of what it means to be human.
Voltaire anticipated aspects of the current model almost three
hundred years ago in his description of Cato’s suicide. I propose a re-
230 ● WHY PEOPLE DIE BY SUICIDE
wording of Voltaire’s statement: None but a fearless person—fearless
at least about suicidal behavior—who also sees little to live for in
terms of effectiveness and connectedness, can surmount the most
powerful instinct of nature. This book has described the mechanisms
that, tragically, allow some people to acquire the ability to enact le-
thal self-injury, and, more tragically still, to lose sight of reasons not
to use it.
EPILOGUE
I dreamt about my dad as I was writing this book’s last chapter; it’s
been fourteen years almost to the day since my dad died. In fact, this
book was due to my editor on August 1, 2004, the fourteenth anni-
versary of my dad’s death. After fourteen years, I still dream about
him regularly. In my recent dream, he and I were in Atlanta—the
place of my birth and of his death. We were looking together at some
kind of construction—it wasn’t finished yet, but we both thought it
was already great and that once it was done it would be even better.
To me, the dream is about my longing for him to see, share, and en-
joy the ongoing construction of my personal and professional life.
Given my beliefs, this will never happen in any way. My dad is
gone and it is my view that I will never see him again, in this life or
the hereafter. This view entails agony for anyone who has lost a loved
one, and death by suicide can exacerbate this agony for reasons artic-
ulated in my theory. With regard to my dad’s death, I hate that he
spent his last moments on Earth alone, in the back of a van in some
parking lot. I hate that as he died, he must have held the (mistaken)
view that he was forsaken by his loved ones and the world in general.
231
232 ● WHY PEOPLE DIE BY SUICIDE
I hate that my mother, sisters, and I had to undergo the awful uncer-
tainty of what happened to my dad, only to discover a truth that
made the uncertainty seem easy. I shudder to imagine that in his last
few moments of consciousness, he might have come to regret his de-
cision, too late. And I regret that he did not say goodbye.
All of this is so painful that it is easy for me to understand why
various views of the afterlife are common and comforting. I believe
that these views and their comfort are illusory, but like any adequate
scientist, I am aware of the possibility of being wrong. And if I am
wrong, then I hope the afterlife is such that my dad is in his boat on
Georgia’s Lake Lanier, fishing for bass with his dad and my Uncle Jim
(both now deceased). I hope the water is calm and that the bass are
biting, and I hope my dad, my granddad, and my Uncle Jim know
that, though I don’t intend it to be anytime soon, I’ll be there eventu-
ally, and when I arrive, I’ll bring more beer and more bait.
NOTES
WORKS CITED
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
INDEX
NOTES
Prologue
1. Range & Calhoun (1990).
3. Menninger (1936), p. 13.
2. Shneidman (1996), p. 15.
4. Ibid., p. 14.
1. What We Know and Don’t Know about Suicide
1. Kellerman (1989), pp. 113–114.
14. p. 20.
2. Zanarini et al. (2003).
15. Shneidman (1996), p. 13.
3. Lewinsohn et al. (2003).
16. For example, Beck et al. (1990).
4. Alvarez (1971), p. 167.
17. Ibid. (1985).
5. Joiner (1999).
18. Ibid. (1990).
6. Ibid. (2003).
19. Beck (1996).
7. Menninger (1936).
20. See also Joiner & Rudd (2000);
8. Sullivan (1953).
Joiner et al. (2000).
9. Menninger (1936), p. 61.
21. Baumeister (1990).
10. Ibid., p. 62.
22. Shneidman (1996), p. 58.
11. Ibid., pp. 209–210.
23. For example, Linehan (1993).
12. Shneidman (1996), p. 4.
24. Kirby (2002), p. 119.
13. Ibid. (1985).
2. The Ability to Enact Lethal Self-Injury Is Acquired
1. p. 78.
2. Shneidman (1996), p. 3.
235
236 ● Notes to Pages 49–75
3. Menninger (1936), p. 23.
31. Joiner et al. (in press).
4. Ibid., p. 66.
32. Mullen, Martin, Anderson,
5. See Alvarez (1971), p. 158.
Romans, & Herbison (1993);
6. Ibid., p. 72.
Stepakoff (1998).
7. Cross (2001).
33. Glowinski et al. (2001).
8. This American Life, National
34. O’Connor, Sheehy, & O’Connor
Public Radio, Producer Ira Glass,
(2000).
May 11, 2003.
35. Pierce (1981).
9. Knipfel (2000), pp. 13, 33.
36. Soloff et al. (2000); Soloff et al.
10. Heckler (1994), p. 127.
(1994) reported similar results.
11. Shneidman (1996), p. 76.
37. p. 269.
12. Rachman (1989).
38. Dhossche, Snell, & Larder
13. Shneidman (1996), p. 133.
(2000).
14. Menninger (1936), p. 23.
39. Menninger (1936).
15. Sullivan (1953), pp. 48–49.
40. Rosenthal et al. (1972).
16. Menninger (1936), p. 64.
41. Veale et al. (1996); Phillips et al.
17. Reidel (2003).
(1993).
18. Menninger (1936), p. 52.
42. p. 183.
19. Mariani (1999).
43. Whitlock & Broadhurst (1969).
20. Alvarez (1971).
44. Conner et al. (2001).
21. Meehl (1973), pp. 278–280.
45. Brent et al. (1994).
22. Shneidman (1996), p. 42.
46. Conner et al. (2003); DuRand et
23. Solomon (1980).
al. (1995).
24. Alvarez (1971), p. 108.
47. Darke & Ross (2002).
25. Rudd, Joiner, & Rajab (1996).
48. Kidd & Kral (2002).
26. Forman et al. (2003); Gispert et
49. Yates, MacKenzie, Pennbridge, &
al. (1987); Lewinsohn, Rohde, &
Swofford (1991).
Seeley (1996); Stein et al.
50. Gunderson (1984); Keel et al.
(1998a).
(2003).
27. Cavanagh, Owens, & Johnstone
51. Menninger (1936), p. 69.
(1999).
52. Ibid.,
p. 203.
28. Brown et al. (2000); see also
53. Lindeman et al. (1996). A subse-
Esposito, Spirito, Boergers, &
quent empirical study reached
Donaldson (2003).
similar conclusions (Hawton et
29. Boardman et al. (1999).
al., 2001).
30. Maser et al. (2002); Fawcett et al.
54. Lindeman et al. (1996).
(1990) obtained similar results;
55. Grassi et al. (2001).
see also Nordstroem et al.
56. Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley
(1995).
(1996) is one example.
Notes to Pages 75–101 ● 237
57. Cross (2001). Knipfel (1999) de-
80. Beck (1996).
scribed similar phenomena.
81. Joiner & Rudd (2000); Joiner et
58. Orbach et al. (1996a, 1996b).
al. (2000).
59. Ibid. (1997).
82. Killias, van Kesteren, &
60. Ibid. (2002).
Rindlisbacher (2001).
61. Rosenthal & Rosenthal (1984).
83. Lester (1999).
62. Levine et al. (1995).
84. Brent et al. (2000).
63. Russ et al. (1999).
85. p. 85.
64. Nock et al. (2004).
86. Snow (2002) found that symp-
65. Seguin et al. (1996).
tom relief was a main motivation
66. For example, Beck, Kovacs, &
for self-injury among prisoners;
Weissman (1979).
Haliburn (2000) reported a simi-
67. Joiner, Rudd, & Rajab (1997).
lar result among adolescents.
68. Joiner et al. (1997).
87. Kemperman, Russ, & Shearin
69. Joiner et al. (2003).
(1997).
70. de Moore & Robertson (1998).
88. Similar to an earlier study by
71. Maser et al. (2002).
Stone & Hokanson (1969).
72. Williams, Pennebaker, & Joiner
89. American Psychiatric Association
(2005).
(1994); cf. Brown et al. (2002).
73. Pennebaker, Francis, & Booth
90. Brain, Haines, & Williams
(2001).
(2002).
74. Isometsae & Loennqvist (1998).
91. Shneidman (1996), p. 37.
75. Shneidman (1996), p. 75.
92. Alvarez (1971), p. 47.
76. Cross (2001).
93. Heckler (1994), p. 81.
77. Colapinto (2000), p. 150.
94. p. 48.
78. Motto & Bostrom (1990).
95. p. 239.
79. Barber et al. (1998).
96. Shneidman (1996), p. 7.
3. The Desire for Death
1. Murray (1938).
8. Seligman & Maier (1967).
2. Shneidman (1996).
9. Seligman (1974).
3. From unpublished writings cited
10. Kaplan et al. (1994).
by Shneidman (1996), p. 29.
11. Levy et al. (2002).
4. Ibid., p. 25.
12. Described in Maris, Berman, &
5. Baumeister & Leary (1995),
Silverman (2000).
p. 497.
13. Leighton & Hughes (1955).
6. de Botton (2004).
14. Dublin & Bunzel (1933), p. 240.
7. Cohen (1998).
15. Alvarez (1971), pp. 73–74.
238 ● Notes to Pages 101–123
16. Counts (1980).
found that threat of financial loss
17. Quoted in Tad Friend’s (October
was a risk factor for death by sui-
2003) New Yorker article.
cide.
18. Shneidman (1996), pp. 14–15.
45. Gargas (1932), p. 697.
19. Ibid., p. 94.
46. Kennedy, Iveson, & Hill (1999).
20. Heckler (1994), p. 64.
47. Lester & Yang (1992).
21. Alvarez (1971), p. 153.
48. Burr, Hartman, & Matteson
22. See Segrin (2003), for a thorough
(1999).
review.
49. For example, one of the variables
23. For example, Lewinsohn et al.
in Boardman et al.’s (1999) study
(1980).
that differentiated those who
24. For example, Perez et al. (2001).
died by suicide from those who
died by other causes was finan-
25. Segrin (1992).
cial difficulty.
26. Talavera, Saiz-Ruiz, & Garcia-
50. DeCatanzaro (1991).
Toro (1994).
51. Shneidman (1996), back cover
27. Hautzinger, Linden, & Hoffman
copy.
(1982).
52. Sullivan (1953), pp. 24–25.
28. Hinchliffe et al. (1977).
53. McAllister, Roitberg, & Weldon
29. Segrin & Flora (1998).
(1990).
30. Jacobson & Anderson (1982).
54. Poulin (1992).
31. DeCatanzaro (1991).
55. O’Connor (1978).
32. Brown, Dahlen, Mills, Rick, &
56. Andrade (1996).
Biblarz (1999).
57. Perlson & Karpman (1943).
33. Joiner et al. (2002).
58. Magne-Ingvar & Oejehagen
34. DeCatanzaro (1995).
(1999).
35. Brown, Comtois, & Linehan
59. Dublin & Bunzel (1933).
(2002).
60. Eisenberger, Lieberman, & Wil-
36. Filiberti et al. (2001).
liams (2003).
37. Motto & Bostrom (1990).
61. Hoyer & Lund (1993).
38. O’Reilly, Truant, & Donaldson
62. Shneidman (1996), pp. 14–15.
(1990).
63. Colapinto (2000), p. 102.
39. Neuringer (1974).
64. Ibid., p. 127.
40. Brown & Vinokur (2003).
65. For example, Kazdin et al.
41. Woznica & Shapiro (1990); see
(1985).
also Sabbath (1969).
66. Troisi & Moles (1999).
42. Orbach, Gross, & Glaubman
67. Stirman & Pennebaker (2001).
(1981).
68. Shneidman (1996), p. 12.
43. Kaslow et al. (2002).
69. Williams & Joiner (2004).
44. Motto & Bostrom (1990) also
70. DeCatanzaro (1995).
Notes to Pages 123–149 ● 239
71. O’Reilly, Truant, & Donaldson
89. Kjelsberg, Eikeseth, & Dahl
(1990).
(1991).
72. Rudd, Joiner, & Rajab (1995).
90. Yampey (1967).
73. Conner, Duberstein, & Conwell
91. Potter et al. (2001).
(1999).
92. Biller (1977).
74. Boardman et al. (1999).
93. Rojcewicz (1971).
75. Magne-Ingvar & Oejehagen
94. Dublin & Bunzel (1933), p. 110.
(1999).
95. Fernquist (2000).
76. Twomey, Kaslow, & Croft (2000).
96. Steels (1994).
77. Van Winkle & May (1993).
97. Trovato (1998).
78. Compiled by McIntosh (2002).
98. Joiner, Van Orden, & Hollar (in
79. Durkheim (1897).
press).
80. Thorlindsson & Bjarnason (1998).
99. Kanner (2003).
81. Hoyer & Lund (1993).
100. Heckler (1994), p. 81.
82. Leenaars & Lester (1999).
101. From The Letters of William
83. Qin & Morten
sen (2003).
James, cited in Dublin & Bunzel
84. Marzuk et al. (1997).
(1933).
85. Wagner et al. (1998).
102. Freud (1929/1989).
86. Tomassini et al. (2003).
103. Yen & Siegler (2003).
87. Gregory (1994).
104. Maldonado & Kraus (1991).
88. Lester (1998).
105. Murray et al. (2002).
4. What Do We Mean by Suicide? How Is It Distributed in People?
1. Coudereau et al. (1997).
10. Kelsay (2002).
2. Barabasz (1981).
11. Axell & Kase (2002).
3. Magne-Ingvar & Oejehagen
12. p. 79.
(1999).
13. Dickerson (2001).
4. Shneidman & Faberow (1961);
14. Ibid.
see O’Carroll et al. (1996) for a
15. Robinson (2001).
leading treatment of this topic.
16. Hochman (1990).
5. Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley
17. Robinson (2001).
(1996) provided some evidence
18. Ganzini et al. (2002).
for this view.
19. Ibid. (2003).
6. Schmidt, Kotov, & Joiner (2004);
20. Reported by David Meadow in
Waller & Meehl (1998).
The Appian: The Student Publica-
7. Cauchon & Moore (2002).
tion of the Harvard Graduate
8. Post (2002).
School of Education, March 1,
9. Kamal & Lowenthal (2002).
2004.
240 ● Notes to Pages 149–169
21. Lord (2000).
51. Statistics provided by the Na-
22. Cohen, Llorente, & Eisendorfer
tional Center for Injury Preven-
(1998).
tion and Control (1995).
23. Nock & Marzuk (1999).
52. Walker (2002).
24. Rosenbaum (1990).
53. Ungemack & Guarnaccia (1998).
25. Malphurs, Eisendorfer, & Cohen
54. Van Winkle & May (1993); May
(2001).
(1987).
26. O’Connor, Sheehy, & O’Connor
55. Markus & Kitayama (1991).
(2000).
56. Edwards et al. (2001).
27. Soloff et al. (2000).
57. Woodrow et al. (1972).
28. Joiner et al. (2002, Study 2).
58. McIntosh (2002).
29. For example, Eaton & Reynolds
59. Cutright & Fernquist (2001).
(1985).
60. Hendin (1982).
30. McIntosh (2002).
61. Cutright & Fernquist (2001).
31. He & Lester (1998); Snowden
62. McIntosh (2002).
(1979).
63. Sabbath (1969).
32. McIntosh (2002).
64. Woznica & Shapiro (1990).
33. Singh & Siahpush (2002).
65. Rosenthal & Rosenthal (1984).
34. June 28, 2002.
66. American Psychiatric Association
35. McIntosh (2002).
(1994).