The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  Dharma-megha-samâdhi (“ecstasy of dharma cloud”). According to Patanjali, the highest form of supraconscious ecstasy (asampra- jnata-samâdhi), which is the doorway to liberation.

  Dharma-shâstra (“moral teaching”), (i) The corpus of moral teachings in Hinduism, (ii) A scripture dealing with morality (dharma).

  Dhyâna (“meditation”). Meditative absorption, or contemplation, the seventh limb (anga) of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga, which is understood as a deepening of concentration (dhâranâ). See also samâdhi.

  Dîkshâ (“initiation”). An important feature of all yogic schools by which a seeker is made part of a traditional chain of gurus.

  Dosha (“defect, flaw”). This specifically refers to the five faults, namely lust (kdma), anger (krodha), greed (lobha), fear (bhaya), and delusion (moha). The term also can denote the three humors: vata (wind), pitta (bile), and kapha (phlegm).

  Duhkha (“suffering”). According to all liberation teachings of India, conditioned or finite existence is inherently sorrowful or painful. It is this insight that provides the impetus for the spiritual struggle to realize liberation (moksha).

  Eka (“one”). The singular Reality that is omnipresent and omnitemporal. See also âtman, brahman.

  Ekagratâ (“one-pointedness,” from eka and agratâ). The process underlying concentration.

  Ekatanata (“one-flowness,” from eka and tanata). The process underlying meditation.

  Gautama. Name of many sages, including the Buddha and the founder of the Nyâya school of thought.

  GitS (“song”). Title of many didactic works composed in metric Sanskrit, notably the Bhagavad-Gîtâ.

  Gopa (“cowherd”). In Vaishnavism, a male devotee of Krishna.

  Gopi (“cowgirl”). A female devotee of Krishna.

  Goraksha. The founder of the Kânphata order and an early preceptor of Hatha-Yoga, who lived in the tenth or eleventh century.

  Guna (“strand, quality”), (i) In Yoga, Sâmkhya, and many schools of Vedânta, one of three primary constituents of Nature (prakriti): sattva (principle of lucidity), rajas (principle of dynamism), and tamas (principle of inertia). The interaction between them creates the entire manifest and unmanifest cosmos, including all psychomental phenomena, (ii) Virtue, high moral quality.

  Guna-atîta (“transcending the qualities”), (i) Liberation, which transcends the constituents (guna) of Nature (prakriti). (ii) The liberated sage.

  Guru (“heavy, weighty”). Spiritual teacher.

  Guru-pûjâ (“guru worship”). A core spiritual practice in many schools of Yoga in which the teacher is venerated as an embodiment of the Divine.

  Guru-Yoga. Yogic practice in which the guru is the focus of the disciple’s spiritual efforts.

  Hamsa (“gander,” generally translated as “swan”), (i) The breath or life force (prâna). (ii) The transcendental Self (âtman). (iii) A type of wandering ascetic (parivrâjaka).

  Haribhadra Sûri. An important Jaina teacher, who composed several works on Yoga, including the Yoga-Bindu.

  Hatha-Yoga (“forceful Yoga” or “Yoga of force”). The Yoga of physical discipline, aiming at the awakening of the serpent power (kun- dalini-shakti) and the creation of an indestructible divine body (divya-deha).

  Hemacandra. An eleventh-century Jaina master, who authored the Yoga-Shâstra and other works.

  Hînayâna (“small vehicle”). The minority school of Buddhism, which revolves around the ideal of the arhat (or arhant) as opposed to the bodhisattva. Cf. Mahâyâna, Vajrayâna.

  Hiranyagarbha (“golden germ”), (i) The mythical originator of Yoga, (ii) Cosmologically, the condition preceding manifestation, corresponding to Brahma.

  Hrid, Hridaya (“heart”). Since ancient times considered to be the physical anchor point of the Self (âtman). In Tantrism, the heart is the location of the anâhata-cakra.

  Indra. Great Vedic deity associated with the sky and war.

  Indriya (“pertaining to Indra” or “instrument”). Sense organ, including the lower mind (manas) as the sixth sensory instrument, ish, îsha, îshvara (“ruler”), (i) The divine Being, (ii) The Creator, (iii) In Patanjali’s Yoga, îshvara is explained as a “special Self.” Ishta-devatâ (“chosen deity”). A spiritual practitioner’s favored deity. Îshvara Krishna. Author of the Sâmkhya-Kârikâ, the source text of Classical Sainkhya.

  Îshvara-pranidhâna (“devotion to the Lord”). One of the practices of restraint (niyama) in Patanjali’s Yoga.

  Jaina. (i) Relating to Jainism, the religio-spiritual tradition founded by Mahavrra, a contemporary of Gautama the Buddha, (ii) A member of Jainism.

  Japa (“muttering”). The meditative recitation of mantras.

  Japin (“mutterer”). A practitioner of japâ.

  Jiva (“living being”). The psyche or finite human personality, which experiences itself as different from others and does not know the transcendental Self directly. Cf. âtman, purusha.

  Jiva-âtman (“living self’). The individuated self as opposed to the transcendental Self (âtman). The same as jîva.

  Jîvan-mukti (“living liberation”). According to most Vedânta schools, it is possible to gain liberation, or full enlightenment, even while still embodied. The Self-realized adept who is thus liberated is known as a jîvan-mukta.

  Jnâna (“knowledge, wisdom”). Depending on the context, this term can refer either to conventional knowledge or liberating wisdom. In the latter sense, jnâna is coessential with the transcendental Reality. Cf. ajnâna, avidyâ.

  Jnânadeva. The greatest Yoga master of medieval Maharashtra, who at a very young age composed a brilliant commentary on the Bhagavad-Gîtâ.

  Jnâna-Yoga (“Yoga of wisdom”). The non-dualist Yoga of self-transcending wisdom, which proceeds by careful discrimination (viveka) between the Real (i.e., the Self) and the unreal (i.e., the ego and Nature).

  Kaivalya (“aloneness”). The state of liberation, especially in Yoga and Jainism. See also moksha.

  Kalâ (“time”). An integral aspect of the finite world (samsâra) and a major reason why it is experienced as suffering (duhkha).

  Kalâ (“part”), (i) The sixteenth lunar phase, which is considered auspicious. (ii) A highly esoteric fact or experience in Kashmiri Shaivism and Tantrism, which is related to the lunar ambrosia of immortality (amrita).

  Kâlâmukha. A Tantra-based order derived from the Lakulîsha tradition of Shaivism. Cf. Aghorî, Kâpâlika.

  Kâlî. The “dark” Hindu Goddess, who destroys illusions.

  Kâlî-yuga. The age of spiritual decline, calling for a new approach to Self-realization. It is traditionally held to have commenced in 3102 B.C.E. See also yuga.

  Kalpa (“form”). An eon lasting a day in the life of Brahma, the Creator, and consisting of a thousand yugas.

  Karna (“desire”), (i) A deity, the Hindu cupid. (ii) Lust, one of the obstacles on the yogic path.

  Kânphata (“split-ear”). The sect or order of yogins founded by Goraksha, who developed Hatha-Yoga.

  Kâpâlika. An extremist Tantric order whose members carry a skull (,kapala) as a begging bowl. See also Aghorî, Kâlâmukha.

  Kapila. The originator of the Sâmkhya tradition, who is attributed with the authorship of the Sâmkhya-Sûtra.

  Karman (“action”), (i) Activity in general, (ii) Karma, or the subtle effect caused by the actions and volitions of an unenlightened individual, which is responsible for his or her rebirth and also for the experiences during the present life and future lives. The idea behind all of India’s liberation teachings is to escape the effects of past karma and prevent the production of new karma, whether good or bad. See also samskâra, vâsanâ.

  Karma-Yoga (“Yoga of action”). A principal type of Yoga, which consists in the self-transcending performance of actions that are in consonance with one’s innermost being (sva-bhâva) and with one’s moral obligations (sva-dharma).

  Kaula (“relating to kula”). (i) A practitioner of kula. (ii) Tantric school focusing o
n kula teachings.

  Kaulika (“relating to kaula”). Practitioner or teaching of the kaula school of Tantrism.

  Keshin (“long-haired”), (i) Vedic name of the sun. (ii) A Vedic ecstatic, often regarded as a forerunner of yogins.

  Kosha (“sheath, casing”). This Vedântic term denotes a bodily envelope, of which there are five: the sheath composed of food (anna- mâyâ-kosha), the sheath composed of life force (prâna-mâyâ- kosha), the sheath composed of thought (mano-mâyâ-kosha), the sheath composed of understanding (vijnâna-mâyâ-kosha), and the sheath composed of bliss (ânanda-mâyâ-kosha). The last- mentioned envelope is sometimes equated with the Absolute itself.

  Krishna (“attractor”). An ancient adept who was later deified. As an incarnation of God Vishnu, he instructed Prince Arjuna, as recorded in the Bhagavad-Gîtâ.

  Kriyâ (“action, ritual”). A major aspect of Tantric practice.

  Kriyâ-Yoga (“Yoga of action”). Patanjali’s name for the combined practice of asceticism (tapas), study (svâdhyâya), and devotion to the Lord (tshvara-pranidhâna).

  Kshatriya. A member of the warrior class of Hindu society.

  Kula (“flock, family”), (i) Shakti. (ii) Tantric group, (iii) The ecstatic experience of the identity of Shiva and Shakti, God and Goddess. See also kaula.

  Kundalînî (“coiled one”). The serpent power (kundalinî-shakti), which lies dormant in the lowest psychoenergetic center of the body. Its awakening is the central goal of Tantrism and Hatha-Yoga. The kundalinî s ascent to the highest psychoenergetic center at the crown of the head brings about a temporary state of ecstatic identification with the Self (in nirvikalpa-samâdhi).

  Kundalînî-Yoga. Tantric Yoga dedicated to the arousal of the kundalinî. The innermost teaching of Hatha-Yoga.

  Lakshmî. Goddess of good fortune, also called Shri, and Vishnu’s divine spouse.

  Laya (“dissolution”), (i) A synonym of pralaya, or cosmic dissolution, (ii) The yogic dissolution of the elements (bhuta) and other aspects of bodily existence by way of meditation and visualization.

  Laya-Yoga. The yogic process of achieving dissolution (laya) through meditation and related practices by which the transcendental Self (âtman) is revealed.

  Linga (“sign, symbol, mark”), (i) In Shaivism, the symbol of the creative aspect of the Divine, (ii) The phallus as a symbol of creativity. (iii) In Patanjali’s Yoga, a specific phase in the process of psychocosmic evolution, representing the first step into manifestation.

  Mahâbhârata. One of India’s two great national epics, recounting the great war between the Kauravas and Pândavas (Arjuna’s side). The epic contains many instructional passages, including the Bhagavad-Gîtâ and the Moksha-Dharma. Cf. Râmâyana.

  Mahâvîra (“great hero”). The title of Vardhâmana, the historical founder of Jainism. See also jaina.

  Mahâyâna (“great vehicle”). The majority branch of Buddhism, which has at its doctrinal core the bodhisattva ideal and the teaching about emptiness (shûnyata).

  Maithunâ (“intercourse”). The ritual practice of sexual congress in the left-hand and kaula branches of Tantrism.

  Manas (“mind”). The lower mind, which is understood as a relay station for the senses (indriya) and which is itself regarded as one of the senses. Cf. buddhi, citta.

  Mandala (“circle”), (i) A sacred area in which rituals are performed, (ii) An area of the body specific to a certain material element (water, fire, etc.). (iii) A graphic representation similar to the yantra, mostly in the context of (Tibetan) Vajrayâna Buddhism. See also yantra.

  Manipura-cakra (“wheel of the jeweled city”). The psychoenergetic center at the navel. See also cakra.

  Mantra. Sacred sound that empowers the mind for concentration and the transcendence of ordinary states of consciousness. A mantra can consist of a single “seed” (bîja) syllable, like om, or a string of sounds and words, which may or may not have a meaning.

  Mantra-Yoga. A type of Yoga focusing on the recitation (japâ) of mantras.

  Manu. Mythological founder of the present human race. Each world period has its own Manu. The present one is Manu Vaivasvata, whose rule will come to an end with the termination of the kali- yuga.

  Matsyendra (“lord of fish,” from matsya and indra). A great adept of Tantrism and possibly the founder of the Yoginî Kaula school who is widely considered by tradition as the teacher of Goraksha.

  Mauna (“silence”). An important yogic practice, which is particularly characteristic of the muni.

  Maya (“measure”), (i) The measuring, divisive power of the Divine, (ii) Illusion or the illusory world.

  Mîmâmsâ (“inquiry”). One of the six classical schools (darshana) of Hindu philosophy, which is concerned with the explanation of Vedic ritualism and its moral applications.

  Moksha (“liberation, release”). According to Hindu ethics, the highest of four possible human pursuits (purusha-artha). It is synonymous with Self-realization. See also mukti, kaivalya.

  Moksha-Dharma (“liberation teaching”). A didactic section of the Mahabharata, containing many yogic teachings.

  MudrS (“seal”), (i) A hand gesture or bodily posture, which has symbolic significance but is also thought to conduct the life energy in the body in specific ways. Hinduism and Buddhism know many such gestures, as can be seen in iconography, (ii) A female initiate in the Tantric ritual, with whom sacred intercourse (maithunâ) is practiced, (iii) Parched grain, which is one of the “five M’s” (panca-makâra) of the left-hand and kaula schools; it is thought to have aphrodisiacal properties.

  Mukti (“release”). A synonym of moksha.

  Muladhâra-cakra (“root-prop wheel”). The lowest of the psychoenergetic centers of the human body, situated at the base of the spine. It is here that the serpent power (kundalinî-shakti) lies dormant.

  Muni. A sage, or one who practices silence (mauna). See also rishi.

  Nâda (“sound”). The primal sound (shabda) of the universe, sometimes said to be the sacred mantra om. It has various forms of manifestation, which can be heard as an inner sound when meditation reaches a certain depth.

  Nadi (“conduit, channel”). According to Hindu esotericism, the human body (or, rather, its subtle counterpart) consists of a network of channels along which flows the life force (prâna). Often the figure 72,000 is mentioned. Of these channels, three are most important, viz. the ida, pingalâ, and sushumnâ. The last-mentioned conduit extends from the lowest psychoenergetic center at the base of the spine to the center at the crown of the head, and it is along this central pathway that the awakened kundalinî must travel.

  Nâma (“name”). Often used in conjunction with “form” (rûpa) to describe the conditioned reality, as opposed to the name- and form-transcending Reality (tattva).

  Nânak. The founder of Sikhism, traditionally called Guru Nânak.

  Nârada. A famous ancient sage teaching Bhakti-Yoga, to whom the authorship of the Bhakti-Sûtra is ascribed. Cf. Shândilya.

  Nâtha (“master, lord”), (i) An epithet of God Shiva, (ii) Appellation of various Tantric adepts, especially Matsyendra and Goraksha.

  Nayanmar. A member of a group of Shiva-worshiping poet-saints of South India. See also Alvar.

  Nirguna-brahman (“unqualified Absolute”). The ultimate Reality in its pure, transcendental state, which is formless and devoid of all qualities (guna). Cf. saguna-brahman.

  Nirodha (“restriction”). In Patanjali’s Yoga, the process of stopping the “whirls” (vritti) of the mind.

  Nirvana (“extinction”). In Buddhism, the transcendence of the ego-self. This condition is occasionally described in positive terms as well as the attainment of a Reality untouched by space and time. In Hindu contexts, the term is mostly used interchangeably with liberation (moksha).

  Nirvikalpa-samâdhi (“transconceptual ecstasy”). The Vedântic term for what Patanjali called asamprajnâta-samâdhi. Cf. savikalpa- samâdhi.

  Niyama (“restraint”). The second limb of Patanj
ali’s eightfold Yoga, which consists in the practice of purity, contentment, austerity (tapas), study (svâdhyâya), and devotion to the Lord (îshvara- pranidhâna). See also yama.

  Nyasa (“placement”). The Tantric practice of touching particular parts of the body or objects in order to infuse them with life energy (prâna) or other subtle energies.

  Nyâya (“rule”). One of the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy, which is concerned with logical and critical argument.

  Ojas. The energy produced through asceticism, especially the practice of chastity, which involves the process of sublimation called ûrd- hva-retas, which means literally the “upward (streaming) of the semen.”

  Om. The key mantra of Hinduism, symbolizing the Absolute. This sacred syllable is also found in Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

  Panca-ma-kara (“five m’s”). The collective name of the five practices of the core ritual of left-hand and kaula Tantrism: the consumption of fish (matsya), meat (mâmsa), wine (madya), and parched grain (mudrâ), all of which are regarded as aphrodisiacs, as well as actual sexual intercourse (maithunâ). The right-hand schools of Tantrism understand these five symbolically rather than literally. See also tantra.

  Pâncarâtra (“five nights”). An early tradition revolving around the worship of Vishnu.

  Pandita. A scholar, or pundit.

  Parama-âtman (“supreme Self,” written paramâtman). The transcendental Self, as opposed to the empirical, embodied self (jîva- âtman). See also dtman.

  Parampara (“one to the other”). A teaching lineage.

  Pasha (“bond, fetter”). In Shaivism, the condition of bondage caused by spiritual ignorance.

  Pashu (“beast”). In Shaivism, the term for an ordinary worldling (sam- sarin), who is unaware of the higher spiritual reality of the Self, or the Divine.

  Pâshupata (“relating to pashupati”). An early tradition focusing on the worship of Shiva in the form of Pashupati.

  Pashupati (“lord of beasts”). An epithet of Shiva, as the ruler of all creatures.

  Patanjali. Author of the Yoga-Sûtra, the source text of Classical Yoga. He probably lived in the second century C.E., though Hindu tradition identifies him with the grammarian by that name who lived 400 years earlier.