The Yoga Tradition

by Georg Feuerstein

  Pitri (“forefather, ancestor”). The ancestors play an important role in the daily ritual life of Hindus, and this is also recognized in Yoga.

  Prâjapâti (“lord of creatures”). Creator, same as Hiranyagarbha.

  Prajna (“wisdom”). Liberating knowledge. See also jnâna, vidyâ.

  Prajnâ-Pâramitâ (“perfection of wisdom”). A corpus of Mahâyâna Sûtras teaching emptiness (shûnya), and the name of the female deity associated with these texts.

  Prakriti (“creatrix”). Nature, which is insentient, consists of an eternal, transcendental ground (called pradhâna or alinga) and various levels of subtle (sûkshma) and gross (sthula) manifestation. The lowest level is the visible material realm with its myriad objects. Nature is composed of three types of qualities or forces (gum). Cf. âtman, purusha.

  Pralaya (“dissolution”). The destruction of the cosmos at the end of a yuga or kalpa.

  Pramana. Valid cognition, one of the mental activities singled out by Patanjali. Cf. viparyaya.

  Prana (“life”), (i) Life in general, (ii) The life force sustaining the body, which has five principal forms: prâna, apâna, samana, udâna, and vyâna. (iii) The breath as the external manifestation of the life force.

  Pranayama (“breath control”). The careful regulation (or expansion, dyamd) of the breath, which is the fourth limb of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga.

  Prapatti. The practice of total self-surrender to the Divine in Vaish- navism.

  Prasâda (“grace, clarity”). The element of grace, as found even in nondualist Yoga schools; also called anugraha.

  Pratyâbhijna (“recognition”). A prominent Shaiva school of medieval Kashmir.

  Pratyahara (“withdrawal”). Sensory inhibition, which is the fifth limb of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga. See yoga-anga.

  Puja or pûjana (“worship”). The ritual veneration of a deity or the guru, which is an important aspect of many forms of Yoga, but especially Bhakti-Yoga.

  Purâna (“ancient [story]”). A type of popular quasi-religious encyclopedia, covering cosmology and theology, but especially the history of kings and sages.

  Purna (“full, whole”). A characterization of the ultimate Reality, which is inexhaustible and integral.

  Purusha (“male”). In the Yoga and Sâmkhya traditions, the transcendental Self, Spirit, or pure Awareness (cit), as opposed to the finite personality (jîva). Cf. prakriti.

  Purusha-artha (“human goal”). Hinduism acknowledges four legitimate goals of human aspiration: material welfare (artha), pleasure (kama), morality (dharma), and liberation (moksha).

  Râdhâ. Krishna’s divine spouse.

  Rajas (from the verbal root raj, “to be excited”), (i) The quality or principle of activity, dynamism, which is one of the three primary constituents (guna) of Nature (prakriti). (ii) Female genital ejaculate or menstrual blood, both of which hold special significance in

  Tantrism. The mingling of rajas and retas (male semen) is said to bring about the ecstatic condition. See also sattva, tamas.

  Râja-Yoga (“royal Yoga”). A late designation of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga, invented to contrast it with Hatha-Yoga.

  Râma. The main hero of the Râmâyana, deified as an incarnation of Vishnu.

  Râmânuja. The eleventh-century founder of the school of Qualified Nondualism (Vishishta Advaita) and chief rival of Shankara’s Absolute Nondualism (Kevâla Advaita).

  Râmâyana. One of India’s two national epics, telling the heroic story of Râma. Cf. Mahâbhârata.

  Rasa (“essence”), (i) Taste, (ii) Quintessence of bliss in some schools of Bhakti-Yoga, especially the Vaishnava Sahajîyâ movement of Bengal, (iii) The nectar of immortality (amrita) in Hatha-Yoga and Tantrism. (iv) Alchemical elixir.

  Rasayana. Alchemy, which is closely associated with Hatha-Yoga.

  Rig-Veda (“knowledge of praise”). The oldest Vedic hymnody, the most sacred scripture of the Hindus. See also Atharva-Veda, Sâma- Veda, Yajur-Veda.

  Rishi. A type of ancient sage who sees the hymns (mantra) of the Vedas. See also muni.

  Rudra (“howler”). An epithet or form of Shiva.

  Rûpa (“form”). In conjunction with the term nâma often used to refer to the manifest world.

  Sac-cid-ânanda (“being-consciousness-bliss,” from sat, cit, and anan- da). The ultimate Reality according to Vedânta. See also ânanda, brahman, cit, sat, tattva.

  Sad-guru (“true teacher”). An authentic guru whose very presence draws disciples to the Divine.

  Sadhaka (“realizer”). A spiritual practitioner, especially on the Tantric path, aspiring to realization (siddhi). Cf. sadhika.

  Sâdhana (“realizing”). The path of spiritual realization; a particular spiritual discipline.

  Sadhika. A female practitioner. Cf. sâdhaka.

  Sadhû (“good one”). A virtuous ascetic.

  Saguna-brahman (“qualified Absolute”). The ultimate Reality in its stepped-down form as Being endowed with various qualities (guna). Cf. nirguna-brahman.

  Sahaja (“twinned”). A medieval term expressing the fact that the transcendental Reality and the empirical reality are coessential. It is often rendered as “spontaneous” or “natural.”

  Sahaja-samâdhi (“natural ecstasy”). The effortless ecstasy (samâdhi), which is the same as liberation. It is also called “open-eyed ecstasy” because it does not depend on the introversion of attention through concentration (dhâranâ) and meditation (dhyâna).

  Sahajîyâ. A medieval Tantra-oriented devotional (bhakti) movement.

  Sahasrara-cakra (“thousand-spoked wheel”). The psychoenergetic center at the crown of the head,which in Tantrism is the destination point of the awakened serpent power (kundalinî-shakti). See also cakra.

  Samâdhi (“ecstasy”). This is the eighth limb of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga. It consists in the temporary identification between subject and contemplated object and has two principal forms: conscious ecstasy (samprajnâta-samâdhi), which includes a variety of spontaneously arising thoughts, and supraconscious ecstasy (asamprajnâta-samâdhi), which is free from all ideation. See also dharma-megha-samâdhi, nirvikalpa-samâdhi, sahaja- samâdhi, savikalpa-samâdhi.

  Samatva (“evenness”). The state of inner balance.

  Sâma-Veda (“knowledge of chants”). The Vedic hymnody containing the chants (samari) used in fire rituals. See also Atharva-Veda, Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda.

  Sâmkhya (“enumeration,” which is related to samkhya, “number”). One of the six classical Hindu schools of thought, which is concerned with the classification of the various principles (tattva), or categories, of existence.

  Samnyâsa (“renunciation”). The practice of turning one’s attention away from worldly things and toward the Divine, which is generally accompanied by an outward act of abandoning conventional life. A purely inner renunciation, however, is also possible.

  Samnyâsin (“renouncer”). The person practicing samnyâsa.

  Samprajnâta-samâdhi (“conscious ecstasy”). The lower type of ecstatic identification with the contemplated object, accompanied by spontaneously arising thoughts (pratyaya). Cf. asamprajnâta-samâdhi.

  Samsara (“confluence”). The finite world of change, as opposed to the infinite, changeless transcendental Reality. Cf. nirvâna.

  Samsarin. The worldling trapped in the world of change.

  Samskara (“activator”). Every action or volition produces a subliminal deposit (âshaya) in the mind, which, in turn, leads to new psychomental activity, thus keeping the person enmeshed in the world of change. See also karman, vâsanâ.

  Sârasvatî. (i) A great river in the heartland of the Vedic civilization, (ii) A Vedic Goddess, personifying the river and the arts.

  Sarga (“creation”). The creation of the cosmos, as opposed to its dissolution (pralaya).

  Sat (“being”). That which is ultimately real, or Reality. See also anan- da, cit, tattva.

  Sat-sanga (“association with the real”). The spiritual pr
actice of frequenting the good (sat) company of saints, sages, and Self-realized adepts, who communicate the ultimate Reality (sat).

  Sattva (“beingness”), (i) A being, (ii) The principle of pure being or lucidity, which is the highest type of primary constituent (guna) of Nature (prakriti). Cf. rajas, tamas.

  Satya (“truth”), (i) Truthfulness, (ii) The ultimate Reality (sat, tattva).

  Savikalpa-samâdhi (“ecstasy with form/ideation”). In Vedânta, the state of ecstatic identification with the transcendental Reality, which is accompanied by thoughts and imagery. See also sam- prajnâta-samâdhi; cf. nirvikalpa-samâdhi.

  Shabda (“sound”). According to Hindu thought, sound is inextricably connected with cosmic existence. Thus, sound exists on various levels of manifestations. The ultimate sound is the sacred mantra om. See also ndda.

  Shaiva. Designation for any process or literary work, etc., pertaining to Shiva, or a worshiper of this deity. See also vaishnava.

  Shaiva-Siddhânta. A South Indian tradition of Shaivism.

  Shakti (“power”). The feminine power aspect of the Divine, which is fundamental to the metaphysics and spirituality of Shaktism and Tantrism.

  Shakti-pâta (“descent of power”). The process of initiation, usually in Tantric contexts, by which a guru empowers the disciple’s spiritual practice.

  Shândilya. A famous ancient sage and the reputed author of the Bhakti- Sûtra. Cf. Nârada.

  Shankara (“pacifier”). The greatest propounder of Hindu nondualism (Advaita Vedânta), who lived in the eighth century C.E. or possibly somewhat earlier.

  Shanti (“peace”). A desirable quality in yogins. Ultimate peace coincides with Self-realization, or enlightenment (bodha).

  Shâstra (“teaching, textbook”). A body of knowledge, often in the forof a book. Thus yoga-shâstra can mean both “Yoga teaching” in general and a particular text by that designation.

  Shiva (“benign”). The deity who, more than any other deity of the Hindu pantheon, has served yogins as a model throughout the ages.

  Shruti (“revelation”). The Vedic revelation comprising the four Vedas, the Brâhmanas, and the Upanishads. Cf. smriti.

  Shudra. A member of the servile class of traditional Hindu society.

  Shûnya (“void”). A key concept of Mahâyâna Buddhism, according to which all phenomena are empty of an eternal essence.

  Shûnyata (“voidness, emptiness”). A synonym of shûnya.

  Siddha (“accomplished”). A Self-realized adept who has reached perfection (siddhi).

  Siddhi (“perfection, accomplishment”), (i) Spiritual perfection; that is, the attainment of flawless identification with the ultimate Reality, or liberation (moksha). (ii) Paranormal power, especially the eight great abilities that come as a result of perfect adeptship.

  Smriti (“memory, remembered wisdom”). Tradition, as opposed to revelation (shruti).

  Spanda (“vibration”). According to Kashmiri Shaivism, even the formless Absolute is in a continuous vibratory state, which is the cause of all creation.

  Sukha (“pleasure, joy”). Ordinary life is a combination of pleasure and pain (duhkha), and both types of experience must be transcended to realize the ultimate bliss (ânanda), which is also called “great joy” (mahâ-sukha).

  Sûrya (“sun”). The solar deity, who has many other names.

  Sûtra (“thread”). An aphoristic statement or a work containing such statements, e.g., the Yoga-Sûtra of Patanjali.

  Svâdhishthâna-cakra (“self-standing wheel”). The psychoenergetic center at the genitals. See also cakra.

  Svadhyâya (“self-study”). Both the study of sacred texts and one’s psyche by means of meditation.

  Svâmin (“lord, master”). Title of Hindu gurus belonging to a monastic order.

  Svarga (“heaven”). Hindu metaphysics recognizes the existence of both various hell realms and heavenly abodes. The latter, however, still belong to the world of change and must be transcended in order to attain liberation (moksha).

  Tamas (“darkness”). The principle of inertia, which is one of the three primary constituents (guna) of Nature (prakriti). See also rajas, sattva.

  Tantra (“loom”), (i) A type of sacred scripture pertaining to Tantrism and primarily dealing with ritual worship focusing on the feminine divine principle, or shakti. (ii) Tantrism, the many-branched religious and cultural movement originating in the early centuries of the Common Era and flourishing around 1000 C.E. Tantrism has a right-hand (conservative) and a left-hand (antinomian) branch.

  Tantrika. A practitioner of Tantrism.

  Tapas (“glow, heat”). Asceticism, which is thought to lead to great vitality. This term was applied to Yoga-like practices in Vedic times.

  Târaka-Yoga (“Yoga of the deliverer”). A Tantra-based Yoga emphasizing the meditative experience of light.

  Tat (“that”). In Vedânta, a cryptic reference to the ultimate Reality, or transcendental Self, as in the dictum “Thou art That” (tat tvam asi).

  Tattva (“reality”), (i) The ultimate Reality, (ii) A principle or category of existence, such as higher mind (buddhi), lower mind (manas), senses (indriya), and material elements (bhuta).

  Tattva-vid (“knower of reality”), (i) A liberated sage, (ii) A spiritual practitioner who knows the various categories of existence taught in Sâmkhya and Yoga.

  Tîrtha (“ford”). A sacred place for pilgrimage.

  Tîrthankara (“ford-maker”). Title of the great Self-realized teachers of Jainism, such as Mahâvîra.

  Tirumûlar. A great South Indian poet-saint, author of the Tiru- Mantiram.

  TVika (“triad”). A medieval Shaiva school of Kashmir, which is nondu- alistic but acknowledges the relative existence of multiplicity (epitomized in the many individual human beings called nara), duality (symbolized by shakti), and unity (represented by shiva).

  Upanishad (“sitting near”). A type of esoteric Hindu scripture that expounds the metaphysics of nondualism (Advaita Vedânta) and is considered the last phase in the Vedic revelation (shruti).

  Upaya (“means”). In Buddhism, another term for compassion (karunâ), the counterpart of prajnâ, standing for insight into the empty (shûnya) nature of all phenomena.

  Vaisheshika (“distinctionism”). One of the six classical Hindu schools of thought, which is concerned with the categories of material existence.

  Vaishnava (“pertaining to Vishnu”). Designation for any process or literary work, etc., pertaining to God Vishnu, or a worshiper of this deity. See also shaiva.

  Vaishya. A member of the merchant class of traditional Hindu society.

  Vajrayâna (“adamantine vehicle”). The Tantric branch of Buddhism, especially in Tibet, which evolved out of the Mahâyâna.

  Vâsana (“trait”), (i) Desire, (ii) In Patanjali’s Yoga, the concatenation of subliminal activators (samskâra) deposited in the depth of the mind through actions and volitions. These must be dissolved before liberation (moksha), or enlightenment (bodha), can be attained.

  Vashishtha. The name of several ancient sages, notably the great authority of the Yoga-Vâsishtha.

  Vedânta (“Veda’s end”). The dominant Hindu philosophical tradition, which teaches that Reality is nondual (advaita). See also âtman, brahman.

  Videha-mukti (“disembodied liberation”). The ideal of some schools of Vedânta, which deny that full liberation can be attained while the body is still alive. Cf. jîvan-mukti.

  Vidyâ (“wisdom, knowledge”). In spiritual contexts, usually liberating wisdom, as opposed to intellectual knowledge. See also jnâna, prajnâ.

  Viparyaya (“error”). According to Patanjali, one of the mental activities (vrittis) that must be silenced. Cf. pramâna.

  Vira (“hero”). In Tantrism, a particular type of spiritual practitioner (sâdhaka), usually following the left-hand branch.

  Vishnu (“pervader”). The deity worshiped by the Vaishnavas and Bhâgavatas, whose two most famous incarnations (avatâra) are Râma a
nd Krishna.

  Vishuddha-cakra (“pure wheel”). The psychoenergetic center at the throat. See also cakra.

  Vishva (“all”). The empirical world (samsâra).

  Viveka (“discernment, discrimination”). On the yogic path, specifically the discrimination between the Self (âtman) and the nonself (anâtman).

  Vrata (“vow”). An important feature of many yogic approaches.

  Vrâtya (“vowed”). A member of a sacred brotherhood in Vedic times, bound together by vows (vrata) and in whose circles yogic practices were developed.

  Vritti (“whirl”). In Patanjali’s Yoga, one of five modalities of mental activity that must be controlled: valid cognition (pramâna), erroneous cognition (viparyaya), conceptualization (vikalpa), sleep (nidra), and memory (smriti).

  Vyadhi (“disease”). Illness, as understood as an imbalance of the three humors (dosha). Cf. ârogya.

  Vyâsa (“arranger”). The legendary composer of the Mahâbhârata epic, collator of the four Vedic hymnodies, many Purânas, and other works, such as the Yoga-Bhâshya commentary on Patanjali’s Yoga-Sûtra.

  Yajna (“sacrifice”). The practice of ritual sacrifice is fundamental to Hinduism. At the time of the Brâhmanas and more so with the Upanishads, the external sacrificial ritual was internalized in the foim of intense meditation, leading to the full-fledged tradition of Yoga.

  Yâjnavalkya. The most renowned sage of the early Post-Vedic Era.

  Yajur-Veda (“knowledge of sacrifice”). The Vedic hymn containing the sacrificial formulas (yajus). See also Atharva-Veda, Rig-Veda, Sâma-Veda.

  Yama (“discipline”), (i) The deity of death, (ii) The first limb of Patanjali’s eightfold Yoga, comprising five moral precepts of universal validity.

  Yantra (“instrument”). A geometric design in Hinduism representing the body of one’s chosen deity (ishta-devatâ) for external worship and meditation. See also mandala.

  Yoga (“union”), (i) Spiritual or mystical practice in general, (ii) One of the six classical Hindu schools of thought, codified by Patanjali in his Yoga-Sûtra.

  Yoga-anga (“limb of Yoga”). According to Patanjali, there are the following eight limbs: moral discipline (yama), self-restraint (niya- ma), posture (âsana), breath control (prânâyâma), sense-with- drawal (pratyâhâra), concentration (dhârand), meditation (dhyâna), and ecstasy (samâdhi).