by Benny Morris
128. Jackson, “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 591.
129. Jackson, “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 591. See also Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 643.
130.
Rössler to Bethmann- Hollweg, 30 November 1915, German Foreign Office, 488.
131. Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 224–225.
Notes to Pages 235–240
132. Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 225–227. Rössler to Hollweg, 20 September 1916, German Foreign Office, 650–651.
133. Diamadis, “ Children and Genocide,” 328–329.
134. Jackson’s Report, 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 594. See also Philip Hoffman to SecState, 1 September 1916, U.S. Official Rec ords, 534; and Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner.”
135. Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 228–229.
136.
Sarafian,
ed.,
Talât Pasha’s Report, 55. The report gave the following figures for Armenians in Aleppo vilayet in 1917: Aleppo (native) 13,679; from Adana 4,757; Izmit 862; Kayseri 838; Diyarbekir 796; Sivas 681; Elazig 606; Konia 469; Ankara 373; Erzerum 257; Bitlis 216; Hudavendigar 192; Niğde 167; Eskishehir 129; Karesi 83; Kastamonu 82; Constantinople 73; Afyon Karahissar 52; Aydin 34; Syria 30; Janik 6. The total is 24,382.
137. Jackson to Morgenthau, 3 August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 44. See also Charles Brissel, American consul, Baghdad, to Morgenthau, 29 August 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 263. On the sale of children, see also Rössler to Bethmann- Hollweg, 31 July 1915, German Foreign Office, 275.
Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 664.
138. Jackson to Morgenthau, 3 August 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 44.
139. Security Directorate to Mutesarriflik of Zor, 24 July 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54A / 91.
140. Jackson, “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 590.
141. Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 226.
142.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 651.
143. Morgenthau to wife, 16 October 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 475.
144. Report by Dr. Schacht, captain, (Ottoman) medical corps, “Migration of the Armenians to Der-el- Zor,” 11 November 1915, attached to Rössler to Bethmann- Hollweg, 16 November 1915, German Foreign Office, 464. See also Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 315–316.
145. Report by W. Spieken, 2 September 1915, enclosed in Rössler to Bethman- Hollweg, 3 September 1915, German Foreign Office, 355.
146. Vali of Damascus, Hulusi Bey, to Interior Ministry, 19 September 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 56 / 77.
About Cemal’s attitude, see Metternich to Bethmann Hollweg, 7 December 1915, German Foreign Office, 491; and Kaiser, At the Crossroads of Der Zor, 60–61.
147.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 640. See also Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 275.
148. Cited in Dadrian, “Documentation of the World War I Armenian Massacres,” 558. See also Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment at Istanbul, 86.
149. See for example Muhacirs Directorate to the mutesarriflik of Zor, 5 July 1915, BOA, DH.
ŞFR, 54/ 308; and Muhacirs Directorate to vilayets and mutesarrifliks, 12 July 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54 / 413.
150.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 664. And see Philip to SecState, 1 September 1916, U.S. Official Rec ords, 535.
151.
Kaiser,
At the Crossroads of Der Zor, 66; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 663–664.
152. Jackson’s report “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 596. In December 1915 Jackson proposed using a code so that he could keep Morgenthau apprised of what was happening, even if his messages were subject to Ottoman scrutiny.
153.
Talât to all vilayets and mutesarriflik, 15 March 1916, Sevk ve Iskan, 356, doc. 286.
154.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 664. See also Dadrian, “Naim- Andonian Documents,” 315.
155.
Rössler to embassy, 6 April 1916, German Foreign Office, 573.
156.
Rössler to Bethmann- Hollweg, 27 April 1916, German Foreign Office, 581.
157.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 364.
158.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 665. Hoffman, Aleppo, to German Embassy, 29 August 1916, German Foreign Office, 617.
Notes to Pages 240–250
159.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 664–665.
160.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 118.
161.
Möhrig’s report, German Foreign Office, 314. See also Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 226.
162. Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner,” 226.
163. Hoffman to German Embassy, 29 August 1916, German Foreign Office, 617.
164.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 665. See also testimony of Manuk Kyrmenikian, 29 October 1916, attached to Rössler to Behmann Hollweg, 5 November 1916, German Foreign Office, 675.
165. Preacher Vartan Geranian to Rohner, attached to Rössler to Behmann Hollweg, 29 July 1916, German Foreign Office, 612.
166.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 665. See also testimony of Hosep Sarkissian, attached to Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, 5 November 1915, German Foreign Office, 674.
167. Bernau, “Trip from Meskene to Der- i- Zor made from 24 August to 4 September 1916,” undated, attached to Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, 20 September 1916, German Foreign Office, 651–656.
168. Jackson, “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 588; and Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 645.
169. Testimony of Hosep Sarkissian, attached to Rössler to Bethmann Hollweg, 5 November 1915, German Foreign Office, 674.
170.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 666.
171. Jackson’s report of 3 September 1915, cited in Philip to SecState, 15 September 1916, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 45.
172.
Sarafian,
ed.,
Talât Pasha’s Report, 58.
173.
Ternon,
Bir Soykırım Tarihi, 352.
174.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 668.
175.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 284–285.
6. A Policy of Genocide
1. See also Hilmar Kaiser’s points in an interview: Kaiser, interview by Garabet Moumdjian, January 18, 2008, Asbarez Armenian news, http:// asbarez . com / 56524 / is - a - long - overdue - controversy - finally
- settled - aram - andonians - infamous - naim - beys - real - identity - is - now - considered - revealed. Another example is the “Ten Commandments” document and the other documents obtained by the British from Ahmed Esad, head of the Second Directorate (Ikinci şube) in the Interior Ministry (Dadrian, “Secret Young Turk Ittihadist Conference”).
2.
See
Bauer,
Rethinking the Holocaust, 68–118; and Kershaw, Nazi Dictatorship.
3. Bloxham, “Armenian Genocide of 1915–1916,” 143. Given the mass murder of Armenians in 1894–1896 and in 1909, the idea of mass murder of Armenians could not have been alien to the mindset of the CUP leadership on the eve of World War I.
4. Bloxham, “Armenian Genocide of 1915–1916,” 176.
5.
Dundar,
Crime of Numbers, 72.
6.
Balakian,
Armenian Golgotha, 50–51. Also quoted in Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 246.
Similar stories were told by missionaries. See testimony of Stella Loughridge, 21 June 1918, USNA RG
256 “Inquiry Documents,” 1917–1919, no. 803, Roll 39.
7.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 125�
��126; Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 148; and Bloxham, “Armenian Genocide of 1915–1916,” 155–156.
8. Testimony of Tacy W. Atkinson, missionary in Harput, 11 April 1918, USNA RG 256, “Inquiry Documents,” 1917–1919, no. 210, Roll 39. See also testimony of Klara Pfeiffer, German Foreign Office, 13, 584.
Notes to Pages 251–257
9.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 127, 132–133, 152–153; Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 184; and Dadrian and Akçam, Judgment in Istanbul, 116–117. See also Malta file of Fazıl Berki Bey and Malta file of Gani Bey (Malta No. 2923), both in UKNA FO 371 / 6500.
10.
Akçam, Shameful Act, 156–157.
11.
Kevorkian,
Armenian Genocide, 244.
12.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 183.
13.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 183, 411–423; and Dadrian, “Role of the Special Organ ization,” 66.
14.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 421–422.
15.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 154–155; and Suny, They Can Live in the Desert, 223–224. Mass arrests of notables occurred in the first half of April in a number of towns, including Maraş and Hacin (Kevorkian, Armenian Genocide, 250).
16. “Conditions in Marsovan,” by American teacher at the college, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 26 July 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 143.
17. Report of Victoria Khatchadour Barutjibashian of Baiburt, undated, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 10 August 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 158.
18.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 292–293; Lewy, Armenian Massacres, 177, 219, 241.
19.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 292; and Davis to Morgenthau, 30 December 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 473.
20.
Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 295.
21.
Talât to all valis and mutasarrıf s, 11 August 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54- A / 382; and Malta File of Ejzaji Mehmet Efendi, UKNA FO 371 / 6501. See also Leslie (?) to Morgenthau, 24 July 1915, U.S.
Official Rec ords, 465: “Some of the women have been brought right back here. Among these there is a pretty girl of thirteen years whose father was [killed,] one of the most prominent men . . . in this region. . . . Now at her age she is to marry one of the brutal petty officers around here and they are to live in her father’s house!”
22. Testimony of Sophia (?) Tahargian (?) in Malta file of Hadji Bekir Mehmed Ali Bey, UKNA FO
371 / 6501.
23. Watenpaugh, “Are There Any Children for Sale?” 291–292.
24. Mary L. Graffam to Peet, 7 August 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 13 September 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 243–244.
25. Heizer, Trabzon, to John Arabian, Rhode Island, 13 November 1915; Heizer to A. G. Ballarian, 13 November 1915; and Heizer to Morgenthau, 1 December 1915 and 24 December 1915, all in USNA RG 84, Trebizond, Vol. 19.
26. Wingate, American Mission, Talas, to Morgenthau, 16 November 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 349.
27. Assyrian plea to the American consul in Tabriz, Persia, 9 June 1914, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 43. See also Rev. Leslie’s report from Urfa, 14 June 1915, cited in Jackson to Morgenthau, 28 June 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 84–85; and testimony of Issa el- Bandec, Armenian priest at the Ourtas (Irtas) convent of Bethlehem, attached to letter from Gen. Clayton to SecState for Foreign Affairs, 20
March 1918, UKNA FO 371 / 3400.
28. Report by an eyewitness, Lt. Sayied Ahmed Moukhtar Baas, no date but stamped 26 December 1916, UKNA FO 371 / 2768. See also Malta file of Ejzaji Mehmet Efendi, CUP member from Erzincan, UKNA FO 371 / 6501.
29. Testimony of Shefik Bey, late kaymakam of Bulanik, in Malta file of Hodja Ilias, Deputy for Marash, UKNA FO 371 / 6501.
30. Testimony of Khenganie Boyadjian, 30, of Bayburt, in Malta file of Ejzaji Mehmet Efendi, UKNA FO 371 / 6501. See also testimony of Eftik (?) Dralian (?) of Yozgat in Malta file of Baghli Oglu Mehmet, çetebaşı in Ankara, UKNA FO 370 / 6501: “ After having murdered her mother and three brothers, Mehmet
Notes to Pages 258–261
took the witness, bleeding and fainting . . . to his house in Yozgad and there criminally assaulted her.” See also report on the “Armenian Exodus from Harput,” attached to Jackson to SecState, 16 October 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 330.
31. Patriarchate report, 21 January 1920, in Malta file of Hdji Bekir Mehmet Ali Bey, UKNA FO
371 / 6501.
32. Alma Johannson’s report, undated, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 9 November 1915, U.S.
Official Rec ords, 336.
33. Unsigned, “Addendum to ‘Report of an Inhabitant of Athlit, Mount Carmel, Syria,’ ” undated but stamped “M.I.2.b, 27 November 1916,” UKNA FO 371 / 2783.
34. “Arabian Report,” 13 December 1915, UKNA FO 371 / 2781; and Intelligence Report, Sir E. Grey Bart to ?, 26 May 1916, UKNA FO 371 / 2777. One Mejidiye was worth 1 / 5 of a Turkish Lira.
35.
Pamuk,
Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire, 209.
36. Report of ARF Committee of Bucharest, no. 6, dated 5 September 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 17 September 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 258.
37. Report of ARF no. 7, dated 28 October 1915, attached to Morgenthau to SecState, 9 November 1915, U.S. Official Rec ords, 342.
38. Intelligence Report, Sir E. Grey Bart to ?, 26 May 1916, UKNA FO 371 / 2777.
39. Intelligence Report, Sir E. Grey Bart to ?, 26 May 1916, UKNA FO 371 / 2777.
40. Dodd To Morgenthau, 3 September 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 44.
41. Dodd To Morgenthau, 8 September 1915, USNA RG 59, 867.4016, Roll 44. See also Morgenthau to his wife, 13 September 1915, FDRL, HM Sr. Papers, Letters 475.
42.
Dündar, Crime of Numbers, 111.
43.
Talât to valis and mutesarrifs, 22 June 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54 / 100. Muhacir s Directorate to Sivas, Trabzon and Mamuret- ül- Aziz vilayets and Canik mutesarriflik, 27 June 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54 / 203. See also Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 291–292.
44.
Talât to valis and mutesarrifs, 1 July 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 184–185, doc. 122; and Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 290–291.
45.
Talât to mutesarrif of Kayseri, 13 August 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 198, doc. 138.
46.
Talât to Mustafa Abdülhalik Bey, vali of Aleppo, in Malta file of Abdülhalik Bey, UKNA FO
3711 / 6501.
47.
Talât to the mutesarrif of Niğde, 18 August 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 221, doc. 171.
48. Ministry of Education to several vilayets and mutesarriflik, 26 June 1915, BOA, DH. ŞFR, 54 / 150.
49. Jackson, “Armenian Atrocities,” 4 March 1918, U.S. Official Rec ords, 594. See also Hoffman to SecState, 1 September 1916, U.S. Official Rec ords, 534; and Kieser, “Beatrice Rohner.”
50.
Şukru, minister of education, to valis and mutesarrifs, 26 June 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 175, doc. 109; and Talât to vilayet of Mamuret- ül- Aziz, 26 June 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 176–177, doc. 111. See also interior minister to mutesarriflik of Kayseri, 3 May 1916, Sevk ve Iskan, 366, doc. 299; and Interior minister to Bekir Sami Bey, vali of Aleppo, 9 August 1915, Sevk ve Iskan, 208–209, doc. 151.
51.
Talât to Mutesarriflik of Kayseri, 21 / 23 September 1916, Sevk ve Iskan, 374, doc. 311.
52.
Talât to Mutesarriflik of Canik, 12 November 1916, Sevk ve Iskan, 377–378, doc. 316.
53.
Kaiser,
At the Crossroads of Der Zor, 69–70.
54.
Talât to vilayet of Sivas, 17 December 1916, Sevk ve Iskan, 381–382, doc. 323.
55.
Çetin, My Grand mother, 68, 72.
56. Kevorkian, “L’extermination des déportés Arméniens,” 55.
57. Talat’s wife, Hayr
iye, later said that he routinely recited a chapter of the Koran each morning (Kieser, Talaat Pasha). Morgenthau wrote that Talât described himself as the most religious member of the CUP- dominated cabinet (Morgenthau, United States Diplomacy, 77).
Notes to Pages 261–270
58.
Çetin, My Grand mother, ix.
59.
Akçam claims that there was a systematic government policy, and that assimilation and conversion were a structural ele ment of the genocide. But the relevant tele grams were sent only after the deportations began (Akçam, Young Turks’ Crime, 289–291).
60. Deringil, “Study of the Armenian Crisis.”
7. Historical Background, 1918–1924
1.
Akçam, Shameful Acts, 227–228, quoting Rauf Bey.
2. Most of them soon received their comeuppance. Talât was assassinated by Armenian gunmen on 15 March 1921, and Sakir on 17 April 1922, both in Berlin. Cemal was likewise assassinated in Tiflis, Georgia, on 21 July 1922. Enver was killed in battle by the Red Army in Turkestan on 4 August 1922.
Nȃzım was convicted by the Turkish government of trying to kill Mustafa Kemal and hanged in Ankara in August 1926.
3.
Akçam, Shameful Acts, 281. For a detailed description of the May and September 1915 law see also Akçam and Kurt, Kanunların Ruhu, 31–47.
4. “Full Text of Conditions of Armistice (which took effect from 12 Noon, 31st October 1918) as arrived at Between British Admiral and Turkish Delegates,” UKNA WO 95 / 4515. In the negotiations the Turks successfully scotched proposals providing for Allied occupation of Sis, Zeytun, and Hacin. Rauf later said, “The armistice we have concluded is beyond our hopes” (MacMillan, Peacemakers, 379). Mark Sykes, the British government’s Middle East troubleshooter, felt that the terms were “compatible with maintenance of Ottoman Dominion over Armenians” (Sykes to Cecil, 3 November 1919, UKNA FO