The Horde

by Marie Favereau

  24. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2, 231 ; Eugène Jacquet, “Le livre de l’Estat du grand Caan, extrait d’un manuscrit de la Bibliothèque du Roi,” Journal Asiatique 6 (1830), 59–60; Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, vol. 4, 89–90; Fedorov-Davydov, Obshchestvennii stroi Zolotoi Ordy, 89–93, 100–107. Information on Özbek’s reforms comes almost exclusively from the Arabic sources.

  25. Allsen, “The Princes of the Left Hand,” 25–26; Kanat Uskenbay, “Left Wing of the Ulus of Jochi in the 13th–the Beginning of the 15th Centuries,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. Rafael Khakimov, Vadim Trepavlov, and Marie Favereau (Kazan: Sh. Marjani Institute of the History of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 2017), 207.

  26. See Uskenbay, “Left Wing of the Ulus of Jochi,” 209. Fourteenth-century cemeteries along the Syr-Daria show an increasing number of burials mixing steppe and Islamic traditions.

  27. Allsen, “Princes of the Left Hand,” 25–26.

  28. On the name “Black Tatar,” see Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 276; on the Bulgarian conquest of Nogay’s former dominions, see 266–269.

  29. A al-Nuwayrī, Nihāyat al-Arab, ed. Tizengauzen, 141 (in Arabic), 162–163 (Russian transl.); Ibn Abī al-Fadāʾil, al-Nahj al-sadīd wa-l-durr al-farīd fīmā baʿd Tārīkh Ibn al-ʿAmīd, Vladimir Tizengauzen [Tiesenhausen] ed., Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S.G. Stroganova, 1884), 185–186 (in Arabic), 196–198 (Russian transl.); al-‘Umarī, Masālik al-absār fī mamālik al-amsār, Vladimir Tizengauzen [Tiesenhausen] ed., Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S.G. Stroganova, 1884), 214 (in Arabic), 235–236 (Russian transl.); Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 264–267, 269–270.

  30. Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 269, 271, 276; István Vásáry, Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 122–133, 149–155.

  31. Janet Martin, Medieval Russia: 980–1584, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 178.

  32. Favereau, “The Mamluk Sultanate and the Golden Horde,” 359–360. The Jochids also married their daughters to Armenian rulers, who like Russian elites were seen as kin of a lower caste.

  33. Martin, Medieval Russia, 174.

  34. Martin, Medieval Russia, 186.

  35. Martin, Medieval Russia, 193–194.

  36. The Chronicle of Novgorod, 1016–1471, trans. Robert Michell and Nevill Forbes (London: Offices of the Society, 1914), 119–121. See also Anton A. Gorskii, Moskva i Orda, 2nd ed. (Moscow: Nauka, 2005), 42–59.

  37. John Fennell, “The Tver’ Uprising of 1327: A Study of the Sources,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 15 (1967): 161–179; Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 151–153, incl. n37.

  38. Martin, Medieval Russia, 196.

  39. Martin, Medieval Russia, 217.

  40. Martin, Medieval Russia, 198–199, 202–206. The Novgorodians so opposed Moscow’s rule that they did not even acknowledge the enthronement of Ivan II, Ivan Kalita’s son, who ruled from 1353 to 1359.

  41. Al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 52–53, 58–59.

  42. Liu, “War and Peace between the Yuan Dynasty and the Chaghadaid Khanate (1312–1323),” 346.

  43. Promis, “Continuazione della Cronaca di Jacopo da Varagine,” 500–501; Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 178n141.

  44. DeWeese, Islamization, 97–100; Tanase, “A Christian Khan of the Golden Horde?” 53. On Özbek’s Black Sea policies, see Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea, 173–199.

  45. Favereau, “The Mamluk Sultanate and the Golden Horde,” 357–361; Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 132n142.

  46. Reuven Amitai, “Resolution of the Mamluk-Mongol War,” in Mongols, Turks and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World, ed. Reuven Amitai and Michal Biran (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 359, 366–369; Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 101–114, 134–136; Benjamin Kedar, “Segurano-Sakrān Salvaygo: un mercante Genovese al servizio die Sultani Mamalucchi, c. 1303–1322,” in Fatti e idée di storia economica nei secoli XII–XX. Studi dedicati a Franco Borlandi (Bologna: Il Mulino, 1976), reprinted in Benjamin Kedar, The Franks in the Levant, 11th to 14th Centuries (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1993).

  47. Victor Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie et les rapports commerciaux des XIIIe–XIVe siècles,” Balkan Studies 35, no. 2 (1994): 197–269, 246. Pegolotti, La pratica della mercatura, 42.

  48. Spinei, “La genèse des villes du Sud-Est de la Moldavie,” 224; Sergei Karpov, “The Grain Trade in the Southern Black Sea Region: The Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century,” Mediterranean Historical Review 8, no. 1 (1993): 55–73, 61–62, 63–64.

  49. Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade, 133–134.

  50. Louis de Mas-Latrie, “Privilèges commerciaux accordés à la république de Venise par les princes de Crimée et les empereurs mongols du Kiptchak,” Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes 29 (1868), 583–584; Di Cosmo, “Mongols and Merchants,” 411.

  51. Mas-Latrie, “Privilèges commerciaux,” 580–595; A. P. Grigor’ev and V. P. Grigor’ev, Kollektsiia zolotoordynskikh dokumentov XIV veka iz Venetsii (St. Petersburg, 2002), 5–33; István Vásáry, “Immunity Charters of the Golden Horde Granted to the Italian Towns Caffa and Tana,” in Vásáry, Turks, Tatars and Russians in the 13th–16th Centuries (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007), ch. 12, 1–13; Marie Favereau, “Convention constitutive. L’approche historique des contrats: le cas des Vénitiens et de la Horde d’Or,” in Dictionnaire des conventions, ed. Philippe Batifoulier et al. (Villeneuve d’Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion, 2016), 82–87. For the original documents, see State Archives of Venice, Libri Pactorum: Liber Albus, ff. 249, 250, 251; III, ff. 225, 236, 247; V, f. 160; Commemoriali: VI, ff. 80–81.

  52. German A. Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, trans. H. Bartlett Wells (Oxford: B. A. R., 1984), 19–22.

  53. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2, 257–258. See also Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, 16. There were some 75,000 inhabitants according to an Arabic source: Vladimir Tizengauzen [Tiesenhausen] ed., Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S.G. Stroganova, 1884), 550. This number sounded reliable to archeologists: Vadim Egorov, Istoricheskaia geografiia Zolotoi Ordy v XIII–XIV vv. (Moscow, 1985), 115.

  54. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2, 257; Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, 19.

  55. Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, 8, 17–19, 25. See also Emma Zilivinskaya and Dmitry Vasilyev, “Cities of the Golden Horde,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. Rafael Khakimov, Vadim Trepavlov, and Marie Favereau (Kazan: Sh. Marjani Institute of the History of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 2017), 630–660.

  56. Ibn Battuta, Voyages, vol. 2, 263.

  57. DeWeese, Islamization, 94–100; Roman Hautala, “Comparing the Islamisation of the Jochid and Hülegüid Uluses: Muslim and Christian Perspectives,” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018), 73–76; Tanase, “A Christian Khan of the Golden Horde?” 52–53; Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 354–355; Lyuba Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 12, no. 3 (2011): 647–673.

  58. Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, 16, 31–32; Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” 669–670.

  59. Walther Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia, trans. Geoffrey Samuel (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 102.

&nbs
p; 60. Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” 658.

  61. Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” esp. 656; S. B. Veselovskii, “Iz istorii drevnerusskovo zemlevladeniia,” Istoricheskie Zapiski 18 (1946): 56–91.

  62. Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” 659, 665.

  63. See V. L. Ianin, “Medieval Novgorod,” in The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1: From Early Rus’ to 1689, ed. Maureen Perrie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 200, 208–209; Grinberg, “From Mongol Prince to Russian Saint,” 653n20. Private land ownership might have emerged in Russia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, but sources for the period are scant.

  64. Charles Melville, “The End of the Ilkhanate and After: Observations on the Collapse of the Mongol World Empire,” in The Mongols’ Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran, ed. Bruno de Nicola and Charles Melville (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 309–335; Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 138–147. According to al-Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-sulūk li-maʿrifat duwal al-mulūk, I / 2, ed. Muhammad Mustafā Ziyāda (Cairo, 1936), 772–774, Abū Sa‘īd and his “six children” died from plague, but this is not confirmed by any reliable contemporary source.

  65. Melville, “The End of the Ilkhanate and After,” 324.

  66. al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 72–76; Utemish Khadzhi, Chingiz-name, trans. and ed. V. P. Iudin, Iu. G. Baranova, and M. Kh. Abuseitova (Almaty, 1992), 107–108; Abū’l-Ghāzī Bahādūr Khān, Histoire des Mongols et des Tatares par Aboul-Ghâzi Béhâdour Khân, trans. and ed. Petr I. Desmaisons (St. Petersburg, 1871–1874; repr. Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1970), 184–185. See also DeWeese, Islamization, 95n57.

  67. Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 161–162; al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 77; Roza Sagdeeva, Serebrianie monety khanov Zolotoi Ordy (Moscow, 2005), 29, nb. 264.

  68. See Zilivinskaia and Vasilyev, “Cities of the Golden Horde,” 644; and Emma Zilivinskaia, “Caravanserais in the Golden Horde,” Silk Road 15 (2017): 13–31.

  7 • WITHDRAWAL

  1. Sergei Karpov, “Génois et Byzantins face à la crise de Tana de 1343 d’après les documents d’archives inédits,” Byzantinische Forschungen 22 (1996): 33–51; Sergei Karpov, “Black Sea and the Crisis of the Mid XIVth Century: An Underestimated Turning Point,” Thesaurismata 27 (1997): 65–77; Sergei Karpov, “Venezia e Genova: rivalità e collaborazione a Trebisonda e Tana, secoli XIII–XV,” in Genova, Venezia, il Levante nei secoli XII–XIV, ed. G. Ortalli and D. Puncuh, 257–272 (Venice: Istituto veneto di scienze, lettere ed arti, 2001), 270–272.

  2. See Hannah Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest: Grain, Embargoes, and Yersinia pestis in the Black Sea, 1346–1348,” Speculum 96, no. 1 (2021).

  3. Louis de Mas-Latrie, “Privilèges commerciaux accordés à la république de Venise par les princes de Crimée et les empereurs mongols du Kiptchak,” Bibliothèque de l’école des Chartes XXIX 6th series, no. 4 (1868), 587–589; Virgil Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 214–216; Nicola Di Cosmo, “Black Sea Emporia and the Mongol Empire: A Reassessment of the Pax Mongolica,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53, no. 1–2 (2010): 83–108, 97–98.

  4. Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest.”

  5. Gabriele de’ Mussis, “Historia de Morbo,” in The Black Death, ed. and trans. Rosemary Horrox (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 19; A. G. Tononi, “La Peste dell’anno 1348,” Giornale Ligustico de Archeologia, Storia e Letteratura 11 (1884), 144–145; Di Cosmo, “Black Sea Emporia and the Mongol Empire,” 97–98; Gilles li Muisis, “Recueil des Chroniques de Flandres,” in The Black Death, ed. and trans. Rosemary Horrox (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994), 46. Timothy May, The Mongol Conquests in World History (London: Reaktion Books, 2012), 199–210; Timothy Brook, Great State: China and the World (London: Profile Books, 2019), 53–56.

  6. Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest.”

  7. Mussis, “Historia de Morbo,” 16–20.

  8. Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest”; Mark Wheelis, “Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8, no. 9 (2002): 971–975.

  9. Abū Bakr al-Qutbī al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways. History of Shaikh Uwais: An Important Source for the History of Adharbaijān in the Fourteenth Century, trans. and ed. J. B. van Loon (’s-Gravenhage: Mouton, 1954), 59; Charles Melville, “The End of the Ilkhanate and After: Observations on the Collapse of the Mongol World Empire,” in The Mongols’ Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran, ed. Bruno De Nicola and Charles Melville (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 319.

  10. On transmission of plague from animals to humans, see Susan D. Jones, Bakyt Atshabar, Boris V. Schmid, Marlene Zuk, Anna Amramina, and Nils Chr. Stenseth, “Living with Plague: Lessons from the Soviet Union’s Antiplague System,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116, no. 19 (2019): 9155–9163. See also Maria Spyrou, Rezeda Tukhbatova, Chuan-Chao Wang, et al., “Analysis of 3800-Year-Old Yersinia pestis Genomes Suggests Bronze Age Origin for Bubonic Plague,” Nature Communications 9, no. 1 (2018): article no. 2234, 1–10; Monica Green, “Editor’s Introduction to Pandemic Disease in the Medieval World: Rethinking the Black Death,” Medieval Globe 1, no. 1–2 (2014): 9–26.

  11. Monica Green, “Editor’s Introduction,” 13; Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest.” On the possible origins of the Black Death within the territory of the Mongol Empire, see Robert Hymes, “Epilogue: A Hypothesis on the East Asian Beginnings of the Yersinia pestis Polytomy,” Medieval Globe 1 (2014): 285–308; Philip Slavin, “Death by the Lake: Mortality Crisis in Early Fourteenth-Century Central Asia, ” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 50, no. 1 (2019): 59–90, 61.

  12. Hymes, “Epilogue,” 289–291.

  13. Barker, “Laying the Corpses to Rest.”

  14. May, The Mongol Conquests, 199–200; Brook, Great State, 60–61. On the emergence of “a single uniform disease structure,” see Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017), 405–408.

  15. Brook, Great State, 59, 63–67, 70–71; Hymes, “Epilogue,” 285–308; Uli Schamiloglu, “Preliminary Remarks on the Role of Disease in the History of the Golden Horde,” Central Asian Survey 12, no. 4 (1993): 447–457; Nükhet Varlık, “New Science and Old Sources: Why the Ottoman Experience of Plague Matters,” Medieval Globe 1 (2014): 193–227; John of Plano Carpini and William Rubruck in The Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, ed. Christopher Dawson (London: Sheed and Ward, 1955), 12, 105–106.

  16. The Muslim writer Ibn al-Wardī reported the plague outbreak in Solkhat: Jackson, The Mongols and the Islamic World, 407. For research and debate surrounding routes of plague transmission, see Monica Green, “Taking ‘Pandemic’ Seriously: Making the Black Death Global,” Medieval Globe 1 (2014): 27–61; Yujun Cui, Chang Yu, Yanfeng Yan, et al., “Historical Variations in Mutation Rate in an Epidemic Pathogen, Yersinia pestis,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 110, no. 2 (2013): 577–582; Hymes, “Epilogue,” 285–308.

  17. Schamiloglu, “Preliminary Remarks,” 449–450; Lawrence N. Langer, “The Black Death in Russia: Its Effects upon Urban Labor,” Russian History 2, no. 1 (1975): 53–67.

  18. al-‘Aynī, ʿīqd al-Jumān, in Vladimir Tizengauzen, ed., Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S. G. Stroganova, 1884), 497–498, 529; Green, “Taking ‘Pandemic’ Seriously,” 30–31.

  19. The Bulgar necropolis, known as “Ust’-Jerusalem necropolis,” was excavated between 1996 and 2003. The site dates from the second half of the fourteenth and the first half of the fifteenth centuries. S. Vasiliev, S. Boruckaia, I. Gazimzianov, “Paleodemograficheskie pokazateli Ust’-Ierusalimskovo mogil�
�nika (g.Bolgar),” in Drevnost’ i srednevekov’e Volgo-Kam’ia. Materialy tret’ikh Khalikovskikh chtenii (Kazan, 2004), 38–40; Maria Spyrou, Rezeda Tukhvatova, Michal Feldman, et al., “Historical Y. pestis Genomes Reveal the European Black Death as the Source of Ancient and Modern Plague Pandemics,” Cell Host and Microbe 19, no. 6 (2016): 874–881.

  20. Troitskaia letopis’. Rekonstruktsiia teksta, ed. Mikhail D. Priselkov (St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2002), 368; Janet Martin, Medieval Russia, 980–1584, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 199.

  21. See Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 37, on the necessarily multicausal explanations of the decline of eastern powers. Abu-Lughod argues that world hegemony was already shifting westward during the time of the Black Death, but I do not find this convincing.

  22. Brook, Great State, 73–76.