The Horde

by Marie Favereau

  23. David Robinson, Empire’s Twilight: Northeast Asia under the Mongols (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 285–286. Khanbalik was located within the boundaries of what is now Beijing.

  24. Robinson, Empire’s Twilight, 367–368. On the Ming as successors of the Mongols, see Yihao Qiu, “Mirroring Timurid Central Asia in Maps: Some Remarks on Knowledge of Central Asia in Ming Geographical Documents,” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (2021); Hidehiro Okada, “China as a Successor State to the Mongol Empire,” in The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David Morgan (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 260–272.

  25. Quotation from the Tangshu (Book of Tang), cited by Sechin Jagchid, “The Kitans and Their Cities,” Central Asiatic Journal 25, no. 1–2 (1981), 71. See also Isabelle Charleux, “The Khan’s City: Kökeqota and the Role of a Capital City in Mongolian State Formation,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth–Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 175n1.

  26. The last known gerege from the Horde dates back to the rule of ‘Abdallāh Khan. There are no sources available on direct relations between the Horde and the Yuan after 1368.

  27. Beatrice F. Manz, “The Empire of Tamerlane as an Adaptation of the Mongol Empire: An Answer to David Morgan, ‘The Empire of Tamerlane: An Unsuccessful Re-Run of the Mongol State?’” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 26, no. 1–2 (2016): 281–291, 285–286. On the terms “Moghulistan” and “Moghul Khanate,” which are more accurate than “Eastern Chaghatai Khanate,” see Hodong Kim, “The Early History of the Moghul Nomads: The Legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate,” in The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy, ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David Morgan (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 290n1.

  28. al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 76–79; Anne Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 162–167.

  29. For Russian sources on Janibek’s violent death, which are all late sources, see Letopisnii sbornik, imenuemii Patriarshei ili Nikonovskoi letopis’iu (Nikonian Chronicle). Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 10 (Moscow: Iazyki russkoi kul’tury, 2000), 229; Letopisnii Sbornik, imenuemii Tverskoi letopis’iu. Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 15 (St. Petersburg, 1863), col. 66; Letopisi belorussko-litovskie. Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 35 (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 47. For Islamic sources, see al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 78–79; Muʿīn al-Dīn Natanzī, Muntakhab al-tavārīkh-i Muʿīnī (Iskandar Anonymous), in Vladimir Tizengauzen, Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 2: Izvlecheniia iz persidskikh sochinenii, ed. Aleksandr Romaskevitch and Semen Volin (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1941), 128–129; Hāfiz-ī Abrū, Dhayl-i jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh-i Rashīdī. Dopolnenie k sobraniiu istorii Rashida, trans. and ed. E. R. Talyshkhanov (Kazan, 2011), 194–195; Abū’l-Ghāzī Bahādūr Khān, Histoire des Mongols et des Tatares par Aboul-Ghâzi Béhâdour Khân, trans. and ed. P. I. Desmaisons (St. Petersburg, 1871–1874; repr. Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1970), 185.

  30. See the Nikonian Chronicle: Letopisnii sbornik, imenuemii Patriarshei ili Nikonovskoi letopis’iu, 229; and the Trinity Chronicle: Troitskaia letopis’. Rekonstruktsiia teksta, ed. Mikhail D. Priselkov (St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2002), 376. According to Ötemish Hājjī, Birdibek killed not only his brothers but other relatives as well: Utemish Khadzhi (Ötemish Hājjī), Chingiz-name, trans. and ed. V. P. Iudin, Iu. G. Baranova, and M. Kh. Abuseitova (Almaty: Gilim, 1992), 108.

  31. István Vásáry, “The Beginnings of Coinage in the Blue Horde,” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 62, no. 4 (2009), 373; Abū’l-Ghāzī Bahādur Khān, Histoire des Mongols et des Tatares par Aboul-Ghâzi Béhâdour Khân, ed. and trans. P. I. Desmaisons (St. Petersburg, 1871–1874; repr. St Leonards: Ad Orientum, 1970), 186; Iurii Seleznev, E’lita Zolotoi Ordy: Nauchno-spravochnoe izdanie (Kazan: Izdatel’stvo “Fen” Akademii Nauk Respubliki Tatarstan, 2009), 110. Historians disagree over whether Birdibek’s successor Qulpa (or Qulna) was a descendant of Özbek. After Qulpa, Taidula supported Khidr and Nawrūz, who were not Batuids: Ötemish Hājjī, Chingiz-name, 112–113.

  32. On Taidula, see Marie Favereau and Liesbeth Geevers, “The Golden Horde, the Spanish Habsburg Monarchy, and the Construction of Ruling Dynasties,” in Prince, Pen, and Sword: Eurasian Perspectives, ed. Maaike van Berkel and Jeroen Duindam (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 469–470.

  33. István Vásáry, “The Jochid Realm: The Western Steppe and Eastern Europe,” in The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, ed. Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen Frank, and Peter Golden (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 80.

  34. See Vásáry, “The Beginnings of Coinage in the Blue Horde,” 373.

  35. al-Ahrī, Taʾrīkh-i Shaykh Uways, 76.

  36. German Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1984), 15, 20–21, 26.

  37. Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, 10; German Fedorov-Davydov, Obshchestvennii stroi Zolotoi Ordy (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Moskovskovo universiteta, 1973), 147–148.

  38. Uli Schamiloglu, “Climate Change in Central Eurasia and the Golden Horde,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. Rafael Khakimov, Vadim Trepavlov, and Marie Favereau (Kazan: Institut Istorii im. Sh. Mardjani, 2017), 665.

  39. Ishayahu Landa, “From Mongolia to Khwārazm: The Qonggirad Migrations in the Jochid Ulus (13th–15th c.),” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018), 218. Some scholars have claimed that Nanguday and Qutluq-Temür were relatives, but there is no clear evidence of this.

  40. Yuri Bregel, Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and Muhammad Riza Mirab Agahi, Firdaws al-Iqbāl: History of Khorezm (Leiden: Brill, 1999), 89; Landa, “From Mongolia to Khwārazm,” 215–231; Devin DeWeese, “A Khwārazmian Saint in the Golden Horde: Közlük Ata (Gözlī Ata) and the Social Vectors of Islamisation,” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018): 107–132.

  41. Interestingly, the Sufi-Qonggirad did not stamp their own names on their coins: see Petrov, “Jochid Money,” 626. These anonymous coins might have been minted by wealthy Khwarezmian families, a result of the decentralization of control characteristic of the Jochid fragmentation.

  42. Landa, “From Mongolia to Khwārazm,” 219–222; and Michal Biran, “The Mongols in Central Asia from Chinggis Khan’s Invasion to the Rise of Temür: The Ögödeid and Chaghadaid Realms,” 58–60, both in The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, ed. Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen Frank, and Peter Golden (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

  43. Ibn Khaldūn, Kitāb al-ʿIbar, in Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh, ed. Vladimir Tizengauzen (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S. G. Stroganova, 1884), 373, 389; Roman Pochekaev, Mamai. Istoriia “antigeroia” v istorii (St. Petersburg: Evrazia, 2010), 16–29; Ilnur Mirgaleev, “The Time of Troubles in the 1360s and 1370s,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. Rafael Khakimov, Vadim Trepavlov, and Marie Favereau (Kazan: Institut Istorii im. Sh. Mardjani, 2017), 689–692; Seleznev, E’lita, 119–124.

  44. Seleznev, E’lita, 24–25.

  45. Ibn Khaldūn, Kitāb al-‘Ibar, 373, 389.

  46. Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania: International Diplomacy on the European Periphery (15th–18th Century), a Study of Peace Treaties Followed by Annotated Documents (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 5; Stefan Maria Kuczyński, Sine Wody (Warsaw: Nakł. uczniów, 1935), 55–57.

  47. Feliks Shabul’do, “Chy buv jarlyk Mamaja na ukrajins’ki zemli? (Do postanovky problemy),” Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva imeni Shevchenka 243 (2002): 301–317; Kołodziejczyk, The Crimean Khanate, 5n4.

  48. On relations between Moscow and the Horde during the rule of the Grand Prince Dmitri Ivanovich, see Anton Gorskii, Moskva i Orda (Moscow: N
auka, 2005, 2000), 80–118; Martin, Medieval Russia, 228–238.

  49. Vásáry, “The Jochid Realm,” 81; Gorskii, Moskva i Orda, 99–100.

  50. Donald Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 244–248.

  51. Christopher Atwood, “Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution,” in Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth–Twentieth Centuries, ed. David Sneath (Bellingham, WA: Center for East Asian Studies, Western Washington University, 2007), 163–165; Thomas Allsen, “Eurasia after the Mongols,” in The Cambridge World History, ed. Jerry Bentley, Sanjay Subrahmanyam, and Merry Wiesner-Hanks (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 159–165.

  8 • YOUNGER BROTHERS

  1. István Vásáry, “The Beginnings of Coinage in the Blue Horde,” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 62, no. 4 (2009): 382–383.

  2. Devin DeWeese, “Toktamish,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 10 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 560–561; Ilnur Mirgaleev, “Succession to the Throne in the Golden Horde: Replacement of the Batuids by the Tuqai-Timurids,” Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie / Golden Horde Review 5, no. 2 (2017): 347–348.

  3. Joo-Yup Lee, “The Political Vagabondage of the Chinggisid and Timurid Contenders to the Throne and Others in Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Qipchaq Steppe: A Comprehensive Study of Qazaqlïq, or the Qazaq Way of Life,” Central Asiatic Journal 60, no. 1–2 (2017): 59–95, 64; and Joo-Yup Lee, Qazaqlïq, or Ambitious Brigandage, and the Formation of the Qazaqs: State and Identity in Post-Mongol Central Eurasia (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 97–103.

  4. DeWeese, “Toktamish,” 561.

  5. Ötemish Hājjī, Chingiz-name, ed. and tr. Veniamin P. Iudin (Alma-Ata: Gilim, 1992), fol. 54b–57b; DeWeese, “Toktamish,” 561–562.

  6. On Toqtamish’s farr, see Ötemish Hājjī, Chingiz-name, 54b; Jean Aubin, “Comment Tamerlan prenait les villes,” Studia Islamica 19 (1963): 87–89.

  7. Ötemish Hājjī, Chingiz-name, 58a–59a.

  8. Virgil Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 225; Roman Pochekaev, Mamay: Istoriia ‘antigeroia’ v istorii (St. Petersburg: Evraziya, 2010), 92–96.

  9. Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade, 226–231.

  10. Enrico Basso, “Il ‘bellum de Sorcati,’ ed i trattati del 1380–87 tra Genova e l’Orda d’Oro,” Studi Genuensi 8, new series (1990): 11–26; Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade, 235–236; Pavel Petrov, “Jochid Money and Monetary Policy in the 13th–15th Centuries,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. M. Favereau, R. Hautala, R. Khakimov, I. M. Mirgaleev, and V. V. Trepavlov (Kazan: Sh. Marjani Institute of History of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 2017), 626–627. We know of at least four treaties concluded between the Jochids and the Genoese: the treaties of November 27, 1380 (signed by an unidentified Jochid figure, Konak Beg); February 24, 1381; July 28, 1383; and August 12, 1387: S. de Sacy, “Pièces diplomatiques tirées de la république de Gênes,” Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la bibliothèque du Roi 9 (Paris, 1827), 52–58.

  11. Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade, 233–234.

  12. The Shibanids briefly accessed the Jochid throne in the 1360s: Ötemish Hājjī, Chingiz-name, fol. 53a–54a. Theirs was, however, a very short reign: Vásáry, “The Beginnings of Coinage,” 373. Historians have numerous theories as to why the Shibanids and Toqa Temürids dominated the other lineages. See Ilnur Mirgaleev “‘Shuab-i pandzhgana’ Rashid ad-dina: perspektivy izucheniia,” Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie / Golden Horde Review 1 (2013): 57–64; Mirgaleev, “Succession to the Throne,” 344–351; Marie Favereau and Liesbeth Geevers, “The Golden Horde, the Spanish Habsburg Monarchy, and the Construction of Ruling Dynasties,” in Prince, Pen and Sword: Eurasian Perspectives, ed. Maaike van Berkel and Jeroen Duindam (Leiden: Brill, 2018), 470–477.

  13. Genealogical sources record that Toqa Temür was the youngest of Jochi’s sons, numbering more than a dozen, or that he was at least considered the youngest by his contemporaries, possibly due to this mother’s rank: Mirgaleev, “Succession to the Throne,” 344–346.

  14. Vásáry, “The Beginnings of Coinage,” 372, 377–383.

  15. Anne Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology in the Islamic and Mongol Worlds (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 171–173.

  16. S. Bocharov and A. Sitdikov, “The Solkhat’s War and Its Reflection in the Fortification of Caffa,” Classica et Christiana 9, no. 2 (2014): 413–426.

  17. Julien Loiseau, Les Mamelouks (XIIIe–XVIe siècle). Une expérience du pouvoir dans l’islam médiéval (Paris: Seuil, 2014), 64, 69; Marie Favereau, “The Golden Horde and the Mamluks,” in The Golden Horde in World History, ed. M. Favereau, R. Hautala, R. Khakimov, I. M. Mirgaleev, and V. V. Trepavlov (Kazan: Sh. Marjani Institute of History of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 2017), 340–343.

  18. Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 172–173.

  19. On the chronology of Toqtamish’s military conflicts with Tamerlane, see Ilnur Mirgaleev, “Bitvy Toktamish-khana s Aksak Timurom,” in Voennoe delo Zolotoi Ordy: problemy i perspektivy izucheniia. Materialy kruglovo stola, pro. v ramkakh Mezhdunarodnovo Zolotoordynskovo Foruma, Kazan’, 29–30 marta 2011 g., ed. I. Mirgaleev (Kazan: Institut Istorii im. Sh. Mardzhani A.N.R.T., 2011), 170–182; on the sources, see Ilnur Mirgaleev, Politicheskaia istoriia Zolotoi Ordy perioda pravleniia Toktamysh-khana (Kazan: Alma-Lit, 2003).

  20. Vadim Trepavlov, The Formation and Early History of the Manghït Yurt (Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 2001), 12–15; Ibn al-Furāt, “Ta’rīkh al-duwal wa-l-mulūk,” in Sbornik materialov, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Zolotoi Ordy, vol. 1: Izvlecheniia iz sochinenii arabskikh, ed. V. G. Tizengauzen (St. Petersburg: Izdano na izhdivenie grafa S. G. Stroganova, 1884), 356–357.

  21. F. B. Charmoy, “Expédition de Timour-i Lènk ou Tamerlan contre Toqtamiche, khân de l’ouloûs de Djoûtchy en 793 de l’hégire ou 1391 de notre ère,” Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des sciences de St Pétersbourg, 6th series, 3 (1836): 89–505; Mirgaleev, “Bitvy Toktamish-khana,” 170–182.

  22. The vassalage agreement between Toqtamish and Jagiello was reached either in 1382 or around 1386. See Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania: International Diplomacy on the European Periphery (15th–18th Century), a Study of Peace Treaties Followed by Annotated Documents (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 6n7; for Toqtamish’s letter to Jagiello, see l. 20–21. An edited version of the agreement appears in I. Berezin, Khanskie Iarlyki, iarlyk khana Zolotoi Ordy Tokhtamysha k pol’skomu koroliu Jagailu 1392–1393 (Kazan: N. Kokovin, 1850).

  23. Barbaro i Kontarini o Rossii: k istorii italo-russkikh sviazei v XV v., ed. and trans. E. Ch. Skrzhinskaia (Leningrad: Nauka, 1971), 125.

  24. Broadbridge, Kingship and Ideology, 185–186; Charmoy, “Expédition de Timour-i Lènk,” 118; Iurii Seleznev, E’lita Zolotoi Ordy: Nauchno-spravochnoe izdanie (Kazan: Izdatel’stvo “Fen” Akademii Nauk Respubliki Tatarstan, 2009), 30; Ilnur Mirgaleev, “Bitvy Toktamish-khana s Aksak Timurom,” in Voennoe delo Zolotoi Ordy: problemy i perspektivy izucheniia. Materialy kruglovo stola, pro. v ramkakh Mezhdunarodnovo Zolotoordynskovo Foruma, Kazan’, 29–30 marta 2011 g., ed. Ilnur Mirgaleev (Kazan: Institut Istorii im. Sh. Mardzhani A.N.R.T, 2011), 170–182.

  25. Ibn al-Furāt, “Ta’rīkh al-duwal,” 356–357; Michele Bernardini, “Tamerlano, i Genovesi e il favoloso Axalla,” in Europa e Islam tra i secoli XIV e XVI, 2 vols., ed. Michele Bernardini, Clara Borrelli, et al. (Naples: Istituto universitario orientale, 2002), vol. 1, 394.

  26. Marie Favereau, “Tarkhan: A Nomad Institution in an Islamic Context,” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018): 186–187.

  27. Kołodziejczyk, The Crimean Khanate, 7–8; De
Weese, “Toktamish,” 563.

  28. Depending on the sources, Toqtamish was killed in battle by a rival khan, by Edigü’s son, or by Edigü himself: DeWeese, “Toktamish,” 563; Devin DeWeese, Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tükles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Tradition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994), 338.

  29. Ciocîltan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade, 230.

  30. The site of New Sarai shows archaeological evidence of Tamerlane’s destruction, but the site of Sarai does not: German A. Fedorov-Davydov, The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, trans. H. Bartlett Wells (Oxford: B.A.R, 1984), 26. On the salt trade and Astrakhan in the 1430s, see Skrzhinskaia, Barbaro, 132.

  31. Josafa Barbaro, Travels to Tana and Persia, trans. W. Thomas and S. A. Roy, ed. Lord Stanley of Alderley (London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1873), 18; original Italian quoted in Skrzhinskaia, Barbaro, 123–124.

  32. Mirgaleev, “Succession to the Throne,” 347–348; Trepavlov, The Formation, 21–22; Ishayahu Landa, “From Mongolia to Khwārazm: The Qonggirad Migrations in the Jochid Ulus (13th–15th c.),” Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée 143 (2018): 219, 224–225.