Delphi

by Michael Scott

  Collier, John, 22; Priestess at Delphi by, Plate IV

  colonization, 59–63; Apollo as god of, 63; community identity and, 322n40; founding of Delphi, 38; oracle and advice on settlement, 86, 89, 97, 111, 132–33, 140, 188

  columns: Aemilius Paullus dedication, 16, 190–91, 191, 196, 299; Aetolian two-column style dedications, 178; Agis of Sparta’s dedication, 141; of Apollo sanctuary, rebuilding, 278; of Athena sanctuary, rebuilding, 278, 292; Athenian omphalos dedication and, 160, 299; of Athenian treasury, 113; caryatid, 106–7; Gelon’s tripod, 123; graffiti inscribed on, 256; ionic, 224–25; Naxian lion dedication, 87, 147; omphalos and tripod dedication, 16; Plataean serpent dedication, 16, 121–22, 151, 240–41, 241, 295; Rhodian chariot of Helios dedication, 160; of running track, 224–26

  Committee of Antiquaries, 262

  community identity: architectural style and, 133; Attalids and cultural, 177; colonization and, 322n40; and cultural homogeneity among the Greeks, 77; dedications and definition of, 133, 167, 177, 288, 322n40, 340n18; of Delphi, 143; Hellanes (Greeks) as shared, 120; pan-Greek interaction at sanctuaries, 76–77; Persian War commemoration and collective “Hellanes,” 121–22; self-definition and, 54, 59

  Constantine the Great, 240–41, 365n44

  Constantius Chlorus, 240

  construction at Delphi: during Aetolian control of Delphi, 176; Amphictyony and, 75, 92, 94, 103, 113, 146, 157, 159, 162; and architectural innovation, 342n44; contracts for, 93, 95, 100; domestic architecture, 45, 49, 51, 64, 74; during Domitian’s reign, 213; earliest structure at site, 41–42; financing of, 95–96, 100, 113, 156, 188, 199, 235, 331n18; after fire of 548, 94–98; legendary, 32; materials used in, 36, 87, 95, 100, 102, 106, 113, 224–26, 235, 246, 298 (see also reuse of materials under this heading); rebuilding projects, 94, 102–3, 146, 156, 157, 159, 162, 278, 292, 293, 340n16; reuse of materials, 102–3, 104, 246, 366n2; during Roman Imperial governance, 236; stadium, 235; stone quarries in area, 95, 235, 285; tamiai (treasurers) instituted for oversight, 163; temple, 87, 95, 100, 113, 246; terracing and site engineering, 45, 92–93, 102, 156, Plate II

  consultation of the Pythia: ambiguity of responses, 28–30, 60, 84–85, 110, 114, 117, 120–21, 134, 136, 163–64, 179, 201, 210–11, 233, 314n58, 328n43; annual calendar and, 13; Athenian, 151, 198; colonization and, 61, 63, 86, 89, 97, 111, 132–33, 140, 188; communication of response to consultant, 19–20, 27–28; decline in, 183, 204–5, 221–22, 336n19; exemption from tax, 174; fabrication or appropriation of, 164, 168; “fake” oracles and, 55, 320n11; fees for, 16–17, 85, 141, 174, 210; “forced” prophecy, 20–21, 311n13; framing of questions for, 26–28, 83–84, 139, 142; as male privilege, 17; orientation of Pythia and consultant, 18; Plutarch on, 218; and political deliberation, 26–27, 29, 54–56; process of, 17–20, 360n46; promanteia and, 15; religious contexts of, 24–26; research and authentication of evidence, 55; Roman, 199–201, 204–5, 210–11, 214; sacrifice and, 15, 17–21, 364n33; “shopping” for favorable responses, 84, 142, 316n28; sources describing, 10–11; Sparta and, 130–31; temple architecture and, 18; verse responses to, 19, 27–28, 200, 218, 312n26; via tin inscriptions in sealed jars, 151–52

  Convert, Henri, 271

  Corcyra, 133

  Core: sanctuary at Eleusis, 151–52

  Corinth, 45–46, 47–48, 52, 56, 57, 66, 70; Chyselephantine statue dedication by, 328n36, Plate V; conflict with Sicyon, 325n13; petition to rename Cypselus’s treasury, 108; Rome and destruction of, 193; sanctuary at, 165; treasury of, 66, 108, 327n32, Plate II

  Cornelius Scipion, P. (Scipio Africanus), 350n12

  correctors (Roman), 215, 358n29

  correspondence with Delphi: Claudius and, 208; Domitian and, 212–13; Gallienus and, 208, 364n37; Hadrian and, 223–24, 226; Trajan and, 215

  Corycian cave, 53, 183, 234; archaeological excavation of, 283–84; artifacts found in, 43, 219, 345n14; as home of serpent, 35; inscriptions at, 167; modern visitors to, 301; photos of, 3, 14; Raikes and discovery of, 255; terra-cotta lamps found in, 219

  Corycians, 86–87

  Cos, 171

  Coubertin, Pierre de, 272

  craters, 125, 157

  Craterus, niche of, 246

  Crates, 148–49

  Crete: consultation of the oracle by, 114; decline of influence at Delphi, 74; and founding of Delphi, 38; and purification of Apollo, 35; relationship with Delphi, 69; shields as dedications, 296; smaller offerings as dedications from, 68, 69

  Crisa, 31–32, 71–72, 77, 324n1

  Croesus of Lydia, 17, 26–30, 83, 97, 314n53, 328n43; consultation of the Pythia by, 28–29, 83–85, 328n43; dedications to Delphi, 84–85, 93–94; golden lion dedication, 84, 93, 151; mixing bowls dedicated by, 84, 93, 151, 198

  Croton, 108; dedications from, 123

  cultivation of sacred land, 71–72, 73, 75, 80, 151, 161, 169

  cults: Antinous Propylaius at Delphi, 104, 224, 299; calendar of sacrifices at Delphi, 104; during Christian era, 242; Domitian and traditional religious observances, 212–13; evidence of, 48; gods worshipped at Delphi, 2, 103–4; Imperial cult of Rome at Delphi, 220; mingling of secular and sacred activities, 64–65, 74; oracle as authority on, 86, 89; provenance of dedicated objects, 49. See also Specific gods

  cultural homogeneity among the Greeks, 77

  currants, tax on export crop, 265–67

  currency: Hadrian and Delphic coinage, 224

  curses: of the Alcmaeonids, 98–99, 109; and cultivation of sacred land, 235; on looted Delphic treasures, 154, 170–71, 199; on the Phocians, 154; and violation of asylum, 98

  Curtius, Ernst, 261

  Cybele, 141

  Cylon, 58, 80, 98, 325n14

  Cyme, 97, 140

  Cyprus, 67–68; dedications from, 110

  Cypselus, 57, 66, 83, 108, 327n32

  Cyrene, 60–61, 97; treasury dedicated by, 160, Plate II

  Cyriac of Ancona, 249–51, 283

  Cyrus, 85, 139

  damiourgoi, government of Delphi by, 226, 239–40, 326n23, 365n43

  dancers originally part of Acanthus column dedication, 166, 299

  Daochus of Thessaly, 163, 166

  Dardani, 199

  Daux, Georges, 192–93, 275

  de Boer, Jelle, 23, 284

  dedications, 53; as advertisement of dedicators’ reputation, 121–23, 127–28, 132, 137, 142, 146, 174, 288; archaic style implemented in, 167–68; armor or shields as, 111, 112, 113; athletic victors honored with, 123, 188, 197, 214, 238, 300; burial of, 44, 88–90, 89, 123, 278–79, 279, 280, 297, 300, 328n36, Plate V; civic, in sanctuary, 162; and civic identity of donors, 108, 111, 167, 287–88; and community identity, 120, 133, 167, 177, 288, 322n40, 340; contemporary studies and records of, 167; by Delphians for member of their families, 235–36; destruction of, 151, 154–55; “dying” with dedicators, 146; as evidence of relationship of communities to Delphi, 49, 66–69; and favoritism of oracle, 82–85; as historical record, 122, 133–34, 137, 146, 147, 160, 167–68; inscriptions and rededication of monuments, 147; and interaction with sanctuary, 65–66; linked with fate of dedicators, 137; military victories commemorated with, 16, 120–23, 127–29, 129, 133, 137, 147, 156, 160, 167, 178, 190, 191, 193, 210–11, 219, 238–39, 293–95, 299–300; “monument war” and, 146–47; Nero and removal of, 210; omens seen at Delphi, 137, 165; painted embellishment of, 128; poets honored with, 197, 362n15; as political statements, 333n42; as propaganda, 189–90, 351n24; as property of the gods, 105, 195; as proxy for political control or preeminence, 129–32; refused by Delphi, 122, 335n8; reorganization and repositioning of, 173; repurposing of, 105, 131, 190, 212, 239, 297; as restitution for transgression, 81; “spatial monopolization” of sacred site and, 113, 127–28, 140–41, 146–47; “style” and attributed provenance of, 68, 86–87, 105; theft of, 170–71, 195, 199; updating of, 172–73, 174, 178. See also Specific donors or monuments

  defense of Delphi: Aetolians and, 170–71, 180; Amphictyony and, 78, 150, 178; fortress-like walls construc
ted, 150, 249; against the Gauls, 170–71; lack of Delphian army, 161, 187, 196; landscape as natural, 3; neutrality and shared responsibility for, 72; Phocians and, 170–71; Sparta and, 131; supernatural, 116–18, 125–26, 170; vulnerability and, 70, 134, 196

  Defradas, Jean, 62

  De la Coste-Messeliere, Pierre, 183, 275–76, 276

  Delian league, 122, 126

  Deliyannis, Theodoros, 266–67

  Delos, 136; excavation of, 263; sanctuary of Apollo at, 173

  Delphi, 103, 134; abandonment of, 249; archeological evidence of cult practice at, 44; as the “center of the world,” 30, 36, 49, 86, 120, 122, 315 (see also omphalos); city’s role in management of sanctuary, 144, 159, 186–87, 238, 284, 286, 288–89, 326n23, 350n12, 357n13; civic government of, 326n23, 343n48; civic structures of, 143; as cosmopolitan community, 104–5, 184, 209; as cultural rather than financial power, 206; decline of, 193, 200–201, 235–36, 239–40; defense of, 142–45, 166, 187, 196, 199; disappearance of, 249; economic dependence on sanctuary, 143; founding of, 31–33, 38, 133–34; habitation of, 44–45, 94; Homeric Hymn to Apollo on origin of, 31–33; as information hub, 27–28, 38, 62, 218; internal conflict in, 148; landscape and setting of, 2–4, 291; meaning of name, 36; modern, 3, 300–301; neutrality or autonomy of, 65, 135–36, 186–87, 188, 215, 235, 286–87; oracle at (see Pythia); as “Panhellenic,” 65; and political rivalry between Athens and Sparta, 111, 134–35; political value of, 201–2; population of, 142–43, 208, 249; relationship with Amphictyony, 159, 186–87; Rome and, 184, 200, 235–36, 286–87; sacked by northern tribes, 199; strategic value of, 75, 134; territorial boundaries of, 186

  Delphiens, 263

  Delphus, 35–36

  Demangel, Robert, 275

  Demaratus of Sparta, 109, 111–12

  Demeter: First Fruits dedication at sanctuary of Eleusis, 133; sanctuaries dedicated to, 77–78, 151–52, 159, 174

  Demetrius, war of, 178

  Demetrius Poliorcetes, 168

  demigods, Delphi as worship site for, 103–4 democracy, 98, 109, 133

  Demonax of Mantinea, 97

  Demosthenes, 155, 160–61

  Dempsey, T., 23

  Déroche, Vincent, 247

  Description of Greece (Pausanias), 233–34, 254

  Dio Chrysostom, 214

  Diodorus Siculus, 13, 72, 131–32, 151, 154, 170–71

  Dionysius of Syracuse, 144–45

  Dionysus: Delphi as cult site, 13, 18, 35, 36, 86, 104, 152–53, 197, 220–21, 313n43, 315n14, 317n34, 318n57, 329n47; Dionysiac guild of Athens, 194; sanctuary at Thebes, 178; sculpture on Temple of Apollo pediment, 153, 153–54; Thyades celebration in Parnassian mountains, 152, 220–21

  divination. See oracles; Pythia

  Dodona, 24, 310n2

  Dolonchi of the Chersonesus, 99

  dolphins, 32

  Domitian, emperor of Rome, 211–12; dedication honoring, 213; and traditional religious observances, 212–13

  dragon of Delphi, 32, 34

  Dragoumis, Stephanos, 265

  Dropion of Paeonia, 174

  Drusilla, 207

  earthquakes, 295; and collapse of walls, 145, 177; and disruption of oracle, 145, 147, 242–43; mudslide over “big dig” excavation, 277; protection of site from, 283; reconstruction after, 148; and relocation of Castri residents, 262–63; structures and dedications damaged by, 156, 212

  Echecrates of Thessaly, 13

  economics: archaeology as international business, 265–66; costs of reconstruction after fire, 95–96; currency, 77, 159, 159, 199; Delphi as cultural rather than financial power, 206; Delphi as resource poor site, 38; donations and support of Delphi, 156, 192; evidence of economic crisis in Greece, 148; fees or price of oracle consultation, 16–17, 85, 141, 174, 210; festivals and, 188; oracle as business, 33, 70, 85, 96–97, 143, 187, 360n46 (see also fees or price of oracle consultation under this heading); purchase of offering goods, 16–18; Pythian games as enterprise, 236–37; Roman financial administrators at Delphi, 215; and secular habitation of Delphi, 143; of slavery and manumissions, 355n58, 355n59; tax to consult oracle, 85; trade, 46–48, 52–53, 68

  Egypt, 173, 176; control of Greek territories by, 184; support of Delphi by, 96

  Elatea, 161

  Eleusis, 161

  Elgin, 256

  Elis, 140

  “E” (mysterious inscription), 203–4, 217–18

  entryways into sacred space, 66, 103, 242, 246, 294, 347n28

  Ephialtes, 120

  Ephorus, 35, 72

  Epidamnus, 133

  Epidaurus, 165

  epimeletai (overseers), 183, 203, 207, 356n1; Delphians as, 213

  Epirus, 173; dedications by, 175, 177

  Eponymous, 178

  Etruscans, 123, 127

  Euboea: pottery from, 53

  Euchidas of Palatea, 119

  Eudamus of Nicopolis, 207

  Eudocus, 188

  Eumeneia festival, 192, 220

  Eumenes II of Pergamon, 185–86; dedication at Delphi, 188; monument erected honoring, 192; Perseus and attempted murder of, 189; relationship with Delphi, 187–88; as Roman ally, 192; statue of, location, 16

  Eumenides (Aeschylus), 15

  Euripides, 25, 34–35, 135, 136

  Eurylochus, 72

  Eurymedon, 128

  Eusebius, 11, 242–43

  Evans, Arthur, 43

  Evans-Pritchard, Edward, 26

  exegetai pythochrestoi (interpreters of sacred law and ritual), 81

  feathers and beeswax, temple of, 36

  festivals at Delphi, 152, 351n18; 20th century revival of, 277; adjustments to Delphic festival calendar, 173; Alcesippeia, 188, 220; Athenian Pythaïs, 194–95, 204, 299; Attaleia, 192, 220; Charila, 221; Dodekais, 204, 212–13; Eumeneia, 192, 220; Herois, 221; monthly, 220; Plutarch on religious calendar, 219–20; and reputation of Delphi, 287; Romaia, 187, 220, 350n14; Sebasta, 220; Septerion, 221; Soteria, 173, 175–76, 220, 348n41, 354n52; Theoxenia, 220. See also Pythian games

  fines, 149–50, 154, 159, 196

  fire: Athenian Pythaïs festival and, 194; Delphi as hearth of Greece, 119–20, 122; at Delphi extinguished by northern tribes, 199; and destruction at Delphi, 51, 64, 90, 93–94; reconstruction after fire of 548, 94–98; sacred hearth in Delphi, 15, 17, 19, 194, 312n26

  First Macedonian War, 180

  First Punic War, 175

  First Sacred War, 71–74; Amphictyony and, 144–45; literary tradition and, 160

  Flavius Aristotimus, T., 224

  Flavius Constantius, 242

  “forced” prophecy, 20–21, 311n13

  Forrest, George, 62, 63

  “fortune telling,” 30

  Foucart, Paul, 263, 264, 266

  Fountain spring, 262

  Fourth Sacred War, 161–62

  Frangos, Dimos, 260, 263, 264

  fraud, oracle as, 22–23, 27–28

  French School in Athens, 262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 269, 275, 277, 369n37, 372n34

  Fufius Calenus, Q., 200, 355n60

  Fulvius Nobilior, M., 187

  Gaia, 33–35, 39, 41, 44, 87, 104, 132, 295; “Chapel of Gaia,” 68; Delphi as cult site, 102, 132, 295; Demeter, sanctuaries dedicated to, 77–78

  Galba, 210

  Galen, 232

  Gallienus, 208, 238, 364n37

  games. See athletic competitions

  Gauls, invasion of, 170–71, 346n25

  Gell, William, 253, 255; drawing of Castri by, 254

  Gellius Menogenes, L., 240

  Gelon of Gela, 114, 116, 122–23; dedications by, 151

  geography of Delphi: aerial views, 2, 3; earthquakes, 145, 156, 170, 212, 242–44, 262, 340n15; and explanations for inspiration of the Pythia, 23–24, 242–43, 284; and isolation of Delphi, 38, 143; map of Delphi and immediate surroundings, xvi; pine trees planted, 277; research on, 373n36; rock falls, 275, 283, 292, Plate VIII. See also earthquakes

  George I, King of Greece, 262

  Gephyraei, 202r />
  German Archaeological Institute, 261

  Germany: attack on Delphi during W.W.II, 282

  Giantomachy (Siphnian treasury), 107, 298

  Giantomachy (Temple of Apollo), 102

  glass, 68, 361n6

  Glaucus, 85

  goats, sacrifice of, 15, 20–21

  gods worshipped at Delphi, 2, 103–4, 287. See also Specific gods

  gold: Alexander I of Macedon, golden statue of, 122, 151; Croesus and dedications of, 83–84, 93, 151; “E,” 204, 217; lion, 84, 93, 151; mines of Siphnos, 105–6; on palm tree dedications, 121, 128, 137; Perseus, golden statue planned by, 190; tripod of Plataean serpent column, 121, 151, 228; vessels as dedications, 84, 175; vessels used in oracle consultation, 151–52

  Gordian III, Emperor, 237, 238

  Gorgias of Sicily, 142

  Gortyn, 214

  grammarian, dedication honoring, 214

  Great Rhetra (Spartan constitution), 56

  Greco-Turkish War, 272

  Greek Archaeological Society, 258, 261–62, 263, 264; administration of Delphi site, 275

  Greek Civil War (1947–49), 282

  Guide de Delphes, 291

  Guys, Pierre Augustin, 257

  Gyges of Lydia, 58, 321n21

  gymnasium, 157–59, 292; baths, library, and dining room constructed, 213–14; Christian church constructed on site, 292; construction on site of, 245–46; graffiti inscribed on columns, 256; location of, Plate I; reconstruction illustrating, 158; running track, 213, 224–25

  gymnasium complex, 213–14

  Hadrian, 215, 299; consultation of the oracle by, 224; and cult of Antinous Propylaius, 104, 224; and Delphi, 222, 223–28; and government of Delphi by damiourgoi, 226, 239–40; Panhellenion, 227–28, 234; statue of, 223–24, 242

  Hale, first name, 284

  Hamilton, Gavin, 252

  Hamilton, George, Earl of Aberdeen, 255

  Hamilton, William, 255

  Heliodorus, 1–2, 6, 236

  Helios, Rhodian statue of, location, 16, 160

  Helladic periods, 43

  Heracleia Pontice, 24, 86

  Heracles, 74, 104, 108, 113, 298–99, 316n27, 320n8

  Herculaneum, 252

  Hermes: cult practices at Delphi, 154

  Herodes Atticus, 229–30, 231, 235, 362n18 Herodotus, 18, 26–27, 56, 58, 60–61, 63; on Alcmaeonids, 98; on construction of temple, 100; consultations mentioned in, 85; on dedications, 87–88; on fire of 548 BC, 94; on Peisistratids, 99; on Persian Invasion, 116; on Siphnians, 105–6, 108