The Comanche Empire

by Pekka Hämäläinen

  located from, 48; bison hunting on, 295,

  Army ambush of, 334, 339

  299; clash over hunting rights on, 301–2;

  Comanche divisions on, 326; coman-

  Labadi, Lorenzo, 315

  chero trade on, 205, 315, 317; U.S. Army

  labor: dual hunting/pastoral economy

  expeditions on, 334, 335

  and, 251–52, 290; gendered division of,

  Lobos (elite Comanche warriors), 267,

  247, 347; polygyny and, 247–50; raid-

  280

  and-trade system and, 351; repartimiento

  Long, Stephen H., 162, 205

  system, 26; shortages of, 247

  Louis XV, King, 68, 69

  Lafora, Nicolás de, 76

  Louisiana, French, 2, 40, 60, 370n1; colo-

  Lakotas, 1, 3, 151, 153, 325; disunity among,

  nial officials, 10; Comanche arms trade

  348; equestrianism and, 356; Native

  with, 51; Comanches as allies of, 65;

  nations displaced by, 162; raids along

  French merchants from, 29, 32; Illinois

  Missouri River, 164; as symbol of all

  Country (Upper Louisiana), 42, 72, 100,

  North American Indians, 343; at war

  160; limits of French ambitions in, 9;

  with United States, 321–22, 332, 342–43,

  livestock markets, 44; slave markets, 251

  356

  Louisiana, Spanish, 58, 69, 106; adminis-

  Lamar, Mirabeau Buonaparte, 196, 215,

  trative system, 93; American encroach-

  216–17

  ment upon, 143–44, 146; American

  land: “cartographic dispossession” of

  traders from, 156; Comanche trade

  Comanches, 195; contrast of Comanche

  with, 90; defenses against British, 100;

  and U.S. expansions and, 142; hunting

  Franco-Spanish merchants of, 71–72,

  privilege as ownership, 324; as private

  91, 92, 111; Illinois Country (Upper

  property, 5

  Louisiana), 160; livestock drives from

  languages, Native, 171

  Texas, 99; slave traffic in, 138; sold back

  Lehmann, Herman, 330

  to France, 144; transfer from French

  Lewis and Clark expedition, 202

  sovereignty, 92

  Lipan Apaches, 30, 48, 57, 63, 79, 90, 98,

  Louisiana, U.S. territory/state of, 141, 149,

  222, 404n54; abandoned by Spaniards,

  156–57; American settlers in, 153; black

  62; alliance with Spaniards, 95; Coman-

  slavery in, 223; as commercial base, 198;

  che truce with El Cojo, 186; “four fires”

  immigrants to Texas, 180; undetermined

  and, 93–94; in Mexico, 220; new Apach-

  border with Spanish Texas, 146, 183

  ería and, 101; raids in Texas, 320; revived

  Louisiana Purchase, 141, 182, 223; Coman-

  power of, 129; in Spanish Texas, 62, 79;

  che trading delegation and, 147; Spanish

  Texas Republic and, 217, 218; Tonkawa

  fear of Anglo expansion and, 182, 202;

  alliance with, 91; wars with Comanches,

  U.S. dispute with Spain over boundaries

  58, 59–60, 61, 91, 220–21; Wichitas at

  of, 146, 183, 411n38; westward expansion

  war with, 96. See also Apaches

  of United States and, 156–57, 357

  488

  Index

  Mackenzie, Col. Ranald, 334, 335, 339

  Mendinueta, Gov. Pedro Fermín de, 74,

  Magüe, Chief, 307

  75, 76, 80, 85; on Cuerno Verde, 103,

  maize, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 51, 58, 72, 73, 81,

  104; despairing reports of, 80–81; on

  82, 85, 91, 151, 152, 178, 203, 300, 302,

  raid-and-trade policy of Comanches, 81–

  385n34; bison products traded for, 25,

  82; report on relationship with Coman-

  27, 43, 91, 102, 153, 298; Pueblo, 167. See

  ches, 83–84; on Spanish retaliation for

  also corn

  Comanche raids, 78

  Mandans, 71, 72, 105, 162; Comanche

  merchants/traders: American, 144–47,

  trading empire and, 169, 170; trading

  147–51, 155, 202, 227, 232, 297, 298;

  decline of, 164

  British, 97, 100, 111, 151, 169; French, 29,

  Marcy, Capt. Randolph B., 223, 230, 244,

  32, 44, 71, 72, 92, 111; New Mexican, 84,

  259, 293; on authority of chiefs, 271; on

  128, 208; Spanish, 41, 72, 91, 92, 111, 128,

  decline of bison, 296; on gender division

  162, 189–90. See also comanchero trade

  of labor among Comanches, 243; on

  Merino y Moreno, Manuel, 157, 248, 278

  horse wealth of Comanches, 261; on

  Mescalero Apaches, 63, 79, 89–90, 98, 117,

  life of elite Comanche men, 264–65;

  124, 129, 139, 222, 230, 309; in Mexico,

  reservation policy and, 308–9; on young

  220; new Apachería and, 101; war with

  warriors, 268

  Comanches, 221

  marriage, Comanche, 247–50, 252, 255,

  mestizaje/mestizos, 211, 359, 360

  257, 269; in rancherías, 270; social rank

  Mexican-American War, 141, 182, 212, 221;

  and, 352. See also polygyny

  Comanche raids following, 307; culmi-

  Martínez, Gov. Antonio, 150, 186, 187

  nation of Comanche power and, 292–

  Martínez, Gov. Mariano, 212

  93; linkage between U.S. and Coman-

  Martos y Navarrete, Gov. Ángel, 61

  che expansionism, 233–38, 358, 359;

  masculinity/male honor, 11, 52, 236;

  one-sided nature of, 233; Texas Rangers

  Comanche war honors and rights to

  as veterans of, 306; U.S. expansion in

  women, 267, 269; mythology of Texas

  wake of, 303

  Republic and, 200, 201; subordination

  Mexico, 2, 141, 150–51, 160, 173, 345;

  of women and children, 250, 251; U.S.

  boundaries with United States, 179–80;

  appeal to injured honor of Mexicans,

  colonial officials, 10; Comanche power

  236

  extending into, 3, 90, 167, 176, 350–51;

  Mayeyes, 98

  Comanche raids into, 156, 219–32, 222,

  Maynez, Gov. Alberto, 208

  432n18; Comanche relations with, 190–

  McCarthy, Cormac, 344, 419n106

  93; Comanches recognized as sovereign

  Medicine Lodge Treaty, 322–23, 330, 331,

  nation by, 47; defenses against Coman-

  336, 437–38n6

  che raids, 226–27; establishment of, 150;

  Medicine Mounds, 276, 278

  fragility of early republic, 9–10; frag-

  Melgares, Gov. Facundo, 158, 209

  mented northern frontier, 182; French

  men and boys, Comanche: gendered

  invasion of, 314; geography, 21; Hidalgo

  division of labor and, 243, 244, 247, 347;

  Revolt, 184; independence, 190; Indian

  horse wealth of elites, 259–61; male

  policy, 212; Indians removed from

  captives of Comanches, 255, 257; war

  United States in, 152; nation-building

  honors, 266–67, 268; warrior cult, 291

  in north of, 10, 210–11, 234, 238; pan-

  Index

  489

  Indian alliance and, 301; separation of

  Mopechucope (Old Owl), Chief, 217, 271,


  Texas from, 213–14; slave raids into, 302;

  308

  territorial losses to United States, 232–

  Morfí, Fray Juan Augustín, 80, 85

  33; Wichitas attacked in reprisal by, 174.

  Mountain of Rocks, Chief, 260

  See also specific states

  Mowway (Shaking Hand), Chief, 326

  Mexico City, 5, 34, 75, 221; battle of

  Muguara, Chief, 216

  Mexican-American War, 237; Coman-

  mules: advantages of, 246; Comanche

  che delegation in, 191

  access to American markets and, 190;

  Mézières, Athanase de, 67, 93–94, 96, 99;

  comanchero trade and, 212; raids for,

  on Comanche mastery in Mississippi

  5, 328; stolen, 74, 151, 155, 385n33; as

  valley, 97; on horse management skills

  wealth, 245

  of Comanches, 245; on social structure

  of Comanches, 242

  Nacogdoches, 113, 196, 357, 411n38; Anglo

  middle ground, 8, 54, 130, 353, 379n80

  merchants and settlers in, 145, 151, 189,

  Mier y Terán, Gen. Manuel de, 173, 180

  194; Apache captives in, 220; as eastern

  Miera y Pacheco, Bernardo de, 48, 64, 80,

  edge of Comanche raiding frontier, 357;

  88

  Hispanic settlers, 187; maps, 79, 169;

  Mimbreño Apaches, 77, 79, 128, 129, 138

  revolutionaries and filibusters in, 185,

  Miró, Gov. Estevan Rodriguez, 72, 106

  227; slave market, 220; trade fairs and

  missions, 9, 36, 89; Apaches and, 30, 31, 33,

  routes, 129, 150, 189, 192

  36, 61; map, 56; San Lorenzo, 56, 61, 62;

  Naishans (Plains Apaches), 161–62, 164,

  in San Sabá valley, 59, 60, 62, 90, 129; in

  165, 168, 203, 316, 331; incorporation

  Texas, 57, 61, 62, 98

  into Comanchería, 172–73, 176, 326;

  Mississippi valley, 50, 91, 101, 345; Ameri-

  peace with Comanches, 281, 295; on

  can settlers from, 303; American traders/

  reservations, 322, 323; southern plains

  markets in, 146, 150, 164; Comanche

  abandoned by, 300

  commercial networks and, 168; Coman-

  Natagé Apaches, 61, 63, 74, 79, 98, 101, 138

  che dominance in, 97, 98, 101, 111, 146;

  Natchitoches, 94, 98, 397n7; American

  European outposts in, 72–73; French

  guns from, 189; Cordero (Sargento-

  forts in, 19; history of European colo-

  Cordero) at, 185; maps, 63, 79, 169; as

  nialism in, 357; horse trade in, 171, 240;

  U.S. settlement, 147, 150

  Indian removal policy in, 152; Native

  nation-states, 8, 68, 333, 345

  migrations out of, 22; Spanish empire

  Native Americans: borderlands and, 8;

  and, 69; Taovaya traders in, 92; U.S.

  colonial records on, 13–14; Comanche

  expansion into, 141; Wichita confedera-

  exceptionalism among, 345, 366n4;

  tion, 33, 146

  devastated by disease epidemics, 300,

  Missouri River valley, 70, 71, 72, 162, 164

  348; displaced by French and Indian

  Missouri territory, 152–53, 154, 155, 160,

  War, 93; eastern Comanche trade

  167

  gateway and, 151–52, 152–56; empires

  Moara, Chief, 119

  of, 2–3; history of colonization and,

  Molina, Father Manuel de, 60

  6–7; horse frontier on Great Plains

  Mongols, Comanches compared to, 243,

  and, 70–71; Indian removal policy of

  352, 366n5

  United States and, 152–53, 156; indige-

  490

  Index

  Native Americans (continued)

  raids in, 89; arrival of Comanches, 18,

  nous agency and history, 360, 368n8,

  20–21; bison hunters from, 127; Bour-

  442–43n20; intertribal arms race on

  bon Reforms and, 108–9, 134, 203,

  Great Plains, 72–73; migrations, 22;

  411n39; as broken/failed colony, 74, 76,

  pan-Indian alliances, 177, 301, 337–38.

  355; colonial officials, 10; Comanche-

  See also Plains Indians; specific

  American trade and, 157–59; Coman-

  nations

  che raid-and-trade policy in, 81–83;

  Navajos, 24, 77, 82, 137, 167; Comanche

  Comanche raids, 5, 74–75, 76–78, 79,

  raids and wars against, 139–40, 309;

  80–83, 103, 117; Comanche trade de-

  disunity among, 348; peace treaty

  pendency on, 70; comancheros of, 205;

  with Spaniards, 123–24, 130; raids on

  competition for markets of, 50; cultural

  New Mexico, 210; territory of, 79; Ute-

  influence of Comanches in, 206–8;

  Comanche slave raids and, 27

  dependence on trade with Comanches,

  Neighbors, Robert S., 175, 270, 279, 307;

  45, 82, 84–85, 203–6; folk play about

  on Comanche raids in Texas, 310; on

  Comanches, 86–88, 344, 360; gover-

  decline of bison, 296; reservation policy

  nors, 107, 158; horses in, 23, 27, 28–29;

  and, 308, 312

  Indian policy, 36; Indian slave trade,

  Neutral Ground Agreement (1806), 146

  26–27; intertribal rivalry over markets,

  New France, 4, 19, 68

  31, 32; Mexico’s loss of, 9–10; as money-

  New Mexicans, 37, 109, 302, 331; Coman-

  draining colony, 6, 353; Native rivalries

  che bonds with, 213, 331; comanchero

  in, 24; peace agreements with Coman-

  trade and, 211; “Los Comanches” and,

  ches, 48, 49, 55, 201–2, 354; “peace by

  86–88; dependency on Comanches, 85;

  deceit” strategy in, 130–37; population,

  fear of Comanches, 76, 210; genízaros

  102; Pueblo Revolt, 23; as satellite of Co-

  and, 204; hunters and traders in Co-

  manchería, 101, 182, 202–4, 350; settler-

  manchería, 127, 130, 204–5, 205; mesti-

  colonists driven out by Comanches, 4;

  zos, 360; under Mexican rule, 209, 238;

  Spanish officials, 27–28; trading markets,

  peace with Comanches, 203, 211, 354;

  25, 26; treaty relations with Comanches,

  raid-and-trade policy of Comanches

  69–70, 73–74, 104, 120, 220; urban-

  and, 45, 82; slave traffic and, 84; Texas

  based society, 11; wars between Coman-

  cattle industry and, 317; trade fairs and,

  ches and Apaches, 40

  84, 377n49; traders and hunters in

  New Mexico, U.S. territory of, 141, 301,

  Comanchería, 128, 130; in war/raiding

  303; Comanche attacks in, 305; coman-

  parties of Comanches, 224, 330

  chero trade, 330; sheepherding in, 331;

  New Mexico, Mexican, 141, 159–60, 167,

  Union loyalty in Civil War, 313

  229, 414n59; Chimayó Rebellion, 211,

  New Orleans, 145, 150, 151, 167; bound-

  212; Comanche raids, 209–10; coman-

  aries of Louisiana Purchase and, 183;

  cheros from, 168, 210; as counterpoint to

  as European metropolitan vision, 353;

  Texas, 212–13; immigration from United

  mercantile houses of, 198

  States, 179; as satellite o
f Comanchería,

  New Spain, 83, 237; Bourbon reforms and,

  182, 223; separation from Mexico, 237–

  108, 134, 143, 183; Comanche domi-

  38, 358

  nance over northern provinces, 208–9,

  New Mexico, Spanish, 1, 2, 5, 72; Apache

  353–55; Comanche wars in northern

  Index

  491

  frontier, 80; expansion to California,

  Oklahoma, 152, 153, 154, 276, 301, 311. See

  100; failure to colonize North American

  also Indian Territory

  interior, 3; Indian policy, 139; northern

  Olavide y Michelena, Gov. Henrique, 38

  frontier defenses, 36, 62; northward

  Olivan Revolledo, Juan de, 35

  expansion, 4; peace in northern border-

  Omahas, 153, 176

  lands, 128, 129–30; reality of Comanche

  Onacama, Chief, 52

  power and, 66; rivalry with New France,

  Opatas, 124, 128

  19; Texas cut off from, 187. See also

  oral traditions, 171, 281

  Spain/Spanish empire

  O’Reilly, Gov. Alejandro, 92

  Nimiricante, Chief, 46–47

  Ortiz, Tadeo, 196–97

  Nokonis (Wanderers), 314, 316, 338

  Osages, 32, 36, 57, 148, 161, 366n3; bison

  Nolan, Philip, 145–46, 183

  hunting and, 295; Comanche alliance

  nomadism, 66, 104; Apaches’ abandon-

  with, 154–55; Comanches at war with,

  ment of, 67; camp movements, 244;

  42, 48, 49, 73, 92, 111, 174, 179, 284;

  ecological constraints of, 348; economic

  conflict with Comanches over hunting

  bottleneck of, 347; empire and, 283;

  ground, 304–5; expansionism of, 96, 98,

  horse herding and, 241, 243; identified

  147; “four fires” and, 93–94; French and

  with poverty, 131; U.S. effort to discour-

  Indian war and, 93; peace with Coman-

  age, 329

  ches, 281; removed tribes in alliance

  Norteños, 58, 60, 61

  with, 300–301; semi-sedentary life of,

  North America, 19, 321; Bourbon officials’

  346; slaves of, 250; summer hunting

  plans for expansion, 202; British claims

  of Comanches and, 286; territory of,

  to eastern half of, 69; colonial history

  56, 63, 79, 176, 316; as threat to Span-

  of, 353; Euro-American conquest of, 1;

  ish empire, 97, 100; trade partnership

  frontier in historiography of, 7; hunting-

  with Comanches, 230; Treaty of Camp

  pastoral societies of, 347; Native powers,

  Holmes and, 294; westward expansion

  3; Seven Years’ War and control of, 68;

  blocked by Comanches, 49, 357; Wichi-

  shifting frontiers of, 5

  tas at war with, 149