A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  The dispute between Mencius and the Moists involves a fundamental issue of ethics, namely, whether there should be distinction in love. To the Moists, love should be universal and without distinction. To the Confucianists, on the other hand, while love embraces all relations, it must have an order or procedure, and an order implies relativity of importance or a gradation. Chu Hsi mentions two reasons why there must be distinction in love.97 One is that parents are the foundation of life and therefore one’s moral obligation to them should be greater.98 The other is that according to Neo-Confucian philosophy, while the principle governing all is one, its manifestations are many. Applied to ethics, this implies that while love is universal, its application to the various relations are different. Human relations should not be the same any more than the myriad things in the world should be identical.99

  4A:2. Mencius said, “The compass and square are the ultimate standards of the circle and the square. The sage is the ultimate standard of human relations. To be a ruler, one should carry out to the limit the way of the ruler. To be a minister, one should carry out to the limit the way of the minister. They only have to follow the example of Yao and Shun. He who does not serve his ruler as Shun served Yao does not respect his ruler, and he who does not rule his people as Yao ruled his, injures his people.

  “Confucius said, ‘There are but two ways to follow, that of humanity and that of inhumanity.’ A ruler who oppresses his people to the extreme will himself be slain and his kingdom will perish. If he oppresses not to the extreme, even then his life will be in danger and his kingdom will be weakened. They will be called by the names of ‘King Yü’ (meaning an unenlightened king) and ‘King Li’ (meaning a cruel king) and though they may have filial sons and affectionate grandsons, they will not be able in a hundred generations to change these names. The Book of Odes says:

  The mirror of the Shang dynasty is not far back,

  It was in the time of the Hsia dynasty [whose last, wicked

  king was removed by the founder of Shang].100

  This is what is meant.”

  4A:9. Mencius said, “Chieh and Chou lost their empires because they lost the people and they lost the people because they lost the hearts of the people. There is a way to win the empire. Win the people and you win the empire. There is a way to win the people. Win their hearts and you will win the people. And there is a way to win their hearts. It is to collect for101 them what they like and do not do to them what they do not like,102 that is all. The people turn to the humanity [of the ruler] as water flows downward and as beasts run to the wilderness.”

  4A:10. Mencius said, “It is useless to talk to those who do violence to their own nature, and it is useless to do anything with those who throw themselves away. To speak what is against propriety and righteousness is to do violence to oneself. To say that one cannot abide by humanity and follow righteousness is to throw oneself away. Humanity is the peaceful abode of men and righteousness is his straight path. What a pity for those who leave the peaceful abode and do not live there, and abandon the straight path and do not follow it!”

  4A:12. Mencius said, “If those occupying inferior positions do not have the confidence of their superiors, they will not be able to govern the people. There is a way to have the confidence of the superiors. If one is not trusted by his friends, he will not have the confidence of his superiors. There is a way to be trusted by one’s friends. If one’s service to his parents does not give them pleasure, he will not be trusted by his friends. There is a way to please one’s parents. If one examines himself and finds himself to be insincere, he cannot please his parents. There is a way to be sincere with himself. If one does not understand what is good, he will not be sincere with himself. Therefore sincerity is the way of Heaven, and to think how to be sincere is the way of man.103 There has never been a person who was completely sincere and yet did not move others. Nor has there been a person who was not sincere and yet could move others.”

  4A:14. Mencius said, “When a ruler failed to practice humane government, all those ministers who enriched him were rejected by Confucius. How much more would he have rejected those who are vehement to fight for their rulers? When they fight for territory, they slaughter so many people that the field is full of them. When they fight for a city, they slaughter so many people that the city is full of them. This is what is called leading on the land to devour human flesh. Death is not enough for such a crime. Therefore those who are skillful in fighting should suffer the heaviest punishment. Those who form alliances with feudal lords should come next. And those who open up uncultivated fields and require the people to cultivate for them should come next after that.”

  4A:17. Shun-yü K’un104 said, “Is it a rule of propriety that men and women should not touch hands when they give or receive things?”105 Mencius said, “It is a rule of propriety.” “If someone’s sister-in-law is drowning, should he rescue her with his hand?” Mencius said, “He who does not rescue his drowning sister-in-law is a wolf. It is a rule of propriety for men and women not to touch hands when giving or receiving things, but it is a matter of expediency to rescue one’s drowning sister-in-law with hands.” “The whole world is now drowning. Why do you, sir, not rescue it?” Mencius said, “A drowning empire must be rescued with moral principles. Do you wish me to rescue the world with my hand?”

  Comment. Here is a classical example of the Confucian theory of ching-ch’üan, or the standard and the secondary, the absolute and the relative.106

  4A:18. Kung-sun Ch’ou said, “Why is it that the superior man does not teach his son himself?” Mencius said, “The circumstance is such that it cannot be done. To teach is necessarily to inculcate correct principles. When these correct principles are not practiced, anger will follow. As anger follows, feelings will be hurt. [The son would say], ‘My master teaches me the correct principles but he himself does not proceed according to correct principles.’ This means that the father and son hurt each other’s feelings. When father and son hurt each other’s feelings, it is bad. The ancients exchanged their sons, one teaching the son of another. Between father and son there should be no reproving admonition to what is good. Such reproofs lead to alienation, and nothing is more inauspicious than alienation.”

  4A:20. Mencius said, “It is not enough to remonstrate the government officials, nor is it enough to criticize the governmental measures. It is only the great man who can rectify what is wrong in the ruler’s mind. Let the ruler be humane, and all his people will be humane. Let the ruler be righteous, and all his people will be righteous. Let the ruler be correct, and all his people will be correct. Once the ruler is rectified, the whole kingdom will be at peace.”

  4A:26. Mencius said, “There are three things which are unfilial, and to have no posterity is the greatest of them all.107 Shun married without first informing his parents lest he should have no posterity. Superior men consider this as if he had informed his parents.”108

  4A:27. Mencius said, “The actuality of humanity consists in serving one’s parents. The actuality of righteousness consists in obeying one’s elder brother. The actuality of wisdom consists in knowing these two things and not departing from them. The actuality of propriety consists in regulating and adorning these two things. The actuality of music consists in rejoicing in these two things. When they are rejoiced in, they will grow. Growing, how can they be stopped? As they cannot be stopped, then unconsciously the feet begin to dance and the hands begin to move.”

  4B:3. Mencius said to King Hsüan of Ch’i, “If a ruler regards his ministers as his hands and feet, then his ministers will regard him as their heart and mind. If a ruler regards his ministers as dogs and horses, his ministers will regard him as any other man. If a ruler regards his ministers as dirt and grass, his ministers will regard him as a bandit and an enemy.”

  Comment. After the founder of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) read this chapter, he was so angry that he ordered the sacrifice to Mencius in the Confucian temple suspended. Eventually his d
ynasty fell for the very reason Mencius gave here.

  4B:10. Mencius said, “Confucius never did anything that went too far.”

  4B:11. Mencius said, “The great man does not insist that his words be necessarily truthful [at all times and under circumstances] or his actions be necessarily resolute. He acts only according to righteousness.”

  4B:12. Mencius said, “The great man is one who does not lose his [originally good] child’s heart.”

  4B:26. Mencius said, “All who talk about the nature of things need only [reason from] facts109 [and principles will be clear]. The fundamental principle [of reasoning] from facts is to follow [their natural tendencies]. What I dislike in your wise men is their forced reasoning. If those wise men would only act as Yü110 did when he diverted the water to the sea, there would be nothing to dislike in their wisdom. Yü diverted the waters as if he were acting without any special effort [for he followed the natural tendencies]. If wise men would act without any special effort [such as forced reasoning], their wisdom would also be great. Heaven is high and the stars are far away. But if we investigate the facts, we may go back to the solstice of a thousand years while we sit.”

  4B:28. Mencius said, “The reason why the superior man is different from other men is because of what he preserves in his mind. He preserves humanity and propriety. The man of humanity loves others. The man of propriety respects others. He who loves others is always loved by others, and he who respects others is always respected by them.”

  4B:30. Mencius said, “There are five things which in common practice are considered unfilial. The first is laziness in the use of one’s body without attending to the support and care of one’s parents. The second is chess-playing and fondness for wine, without attending to the support and care of one’s parents. The third is love of things and money and being exclusively attached to one’s wife and children, without attending to the support and care of one’s parents. The fourth is following the desires of one’s ears and eyes, thus bringing his parents to disgrace. And the fifth is being fond of bravery, fighting, and quarreling, thus endangering one’s parents.”

  4B:32. Master Ch’u111 said, “The king sends people to spy on you and see whether you are really different from others.” Mencius said, “How should I be different from others? Yao and Shun were the same as other men.”

  5A:5. Wan Chang112 asked, “Is it true that Yao gave the empire to Shun?” Mencius replied, “No. The emperor cannot give the empire to another person.” “Yes, but Shun had the empire. Who gave it to him?” Mencius said, “Heaven gave it to him.” “By Heaven’s giving it to him, do you mean that Heaven gave it to him in so many words?” “No. Heaven does not speak. It simply shows its will by [Shun’s] personal character and his conduct of affairs.”

  “May I ask how Heaven showed its will by [Shun’s] character and his conduct of affairs?” Mencius said, “The emperor can recommend a person to Heaven, but he cannot make Heaven give that man the empire. A feudal lord can recommend a person to the emperor, but he cannot make the emperor make that man a feudal lord. A great officer can recommend a person to a feudal lord, but he cannot make the feudal lord make that man a great officer. In ancient times, Yao recommended Shun to Heaven, and Heaven accepted him. He showed him to the people, and the people accepted him. I therefore say that Heaven did not speak, but that it simply indicated its will by his character and his conduct of affairs.”

  “May I ask how it was that Yao recommended him to Heaven and Heaven accepted, and that he showed him to the people and the people accepted him?” Mencius said, “He had him preside over the sacrifices, and all the spiritual beings enjoyed them. This means that Heaven accepted him. He had him preside over the conduct of affairs, and the affairs were well managed, and the people felt satisfied. This means that the people accepted him. It was Heaven that gave the empire to him. It was the people that gave the empire to him. Therefore I said, ‘The emperor cannot give the empire to another person.’ Shun assisted Yao for twenty-eight years. This was more than a man could do; it was Heaven that did it. After the death of Yao, when the three-year mourning was completed, Shun withdrew from the son of Yao to the south of the South River. The feudal lords of the empire, however, going to court, went not to the son of Yao but to Shun, litigants went not to the son of Yao but to Shun, and singers sang not to the son of Yao but to Shun. Therefore I said, ‘Heaven [gave the empire to him].’ Only then did he go to the Middle Kingdom (China) and take the emperor’s seat. If he had occupied the place of Yao and applied pressure to his son, it would have been an act of usurpation, and not a gift of Heaven. The ‘Great Declaration’ said, ‘Heaven sees as my people see; Heaven hears as my people hear.’113 This is the meaning.”

  6B:15. Mencius said, “When Heaven is about to confer a great responsibility on any man, it will exercise his mind with suffering, subject his sinews and bones to hard work, expose his body to hunger, put him to poverty, place obstacles in the paths of his deeds, so as to stimulate his mind, harden his nature, and improve wherever he is incompetent.”

  7A:1. Mencius said, “He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature. He who knows his nature knows Heaven. To preserve one’s mind and to nourish one’s nature is the way to serve Heaven. Not to allow any double-mindedness regardless of longevity or brevity of life, but to cultivate one’s person and wait for [destiny (ming, fate, Heaven’s decree or mandate) to take its own course] is the way to fulfill one’s destiny.”114

  Comment. In ancient China there were five theories about destiny or the Mandate of Heaven. The first was fatalism: the Mandate of Heaven is fixed and unchangeable. The second was moral determinism: Heaven always encourages virtue and punishes evil; therefore, man can determine his reward and punishment through moral deeds. The third was anti-fatalism, advocated by the Moist School.115 The fourth was naturalistic fatalism, which means that destiny is not controlled by Heaven in the sense of an anthropomorphic God but by Nature and works automatically. Lastly, there was the Confucian theory of “waiting for destiny.”116 According to this doctrine, man should exert his utmost in moral endeavor and leave whatever is beyond our control to fate. It frankly admits that there are things beyond our control but that is no reason why one should relax in his moral endeavor. The tendency was definitely one of moralism and humanism. The Confucian theory represents the conviction of enlightened Chinese in general.

  7A:2. Mencius said, “Everything is destiny (ming). A man should accept obediently what is correct [in one’s destiny]. Therefore, he who knows destiny does not stand beneath a precipitous wall. Death sustained in the course of carrying out the Way to the limit is due to correct destiny. But death under handcuffs and fetters is not due to correct destiny.”

  7A:4. Mencius said, “All things are already complete in oneself. There is no greater joy than to examine oneself and be sincere. When in one’s conduct one vigorously exercises altruism, humanity is not far to seek, but right by him.”117

  Comment. Confucius carefully balanced the individual and society. This balance is maintained in Mencius as it has been throughout the history of Confucianism. But at many points Mencius seems to emphasize the individual, for he believes that everyone can be a sage118 and that integrity and will are completely his own.119 As Hu Shih has pointed out, while the Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean have already raised the position of the individual, Mencius gave him even much more importance.120

  7A:5. Mencius said, “To act without understanding and do so habitually without examination, following certain courses all their lives without knowing the principles behind them—this is the way of the multitude.”

  7A:13. Mencius said, “Under a despot, the people look brisk and cheerful [only temporarily and superficially, for the despot’s kindness is selfishly motivated]. Under a true king, however, the people feel magnificent and at ease with themselves. Though he punishes them by death, they do not complain, and when he benefits them, they do not think of their merit. From day to day they make p
rogress toward the good without knowing who makes them do so. Whenever the superior man passes through, transforming influence follows. Wherever he abides, spiritual influence remains. This forms the same current above and below with that of Heaven and Earth. Is this a small help?”121

  7A:15. Mencius said, “The ability possessed by men without their having acquired it by learning is innate122 ability, and the knowledge possessed by them without deliberation is innate knowledge. Children carried in the arms all know to love their parents. As they grow, they all know to respect their elder brothers. To have filial affection for parents is humanity, and to respect elders is righteousness. These feelings are universal in the world, that is all.”

  Comment. The concepts of innate knowledge and innate ability later formed the keynote of Wang Yang-ming’s philosophy.123

  7A:26. Mencius said, “Yang Chu’s choice was ‘everyone for himself.’ Though he might benefit the entire world by plucking out a single hair, he would not do it. Mo Ti advocated universal love. If by rubbing smooth his whole body from head to foot he could benefit the world, he would do it. Tzu-mo124 holds the mean between the two, and he is nearer the right. Holding the mean without allowing for special circumstances is like holding on to one particular thing. The reason why I hate holding to one thing is because it destroys the Way. It takes up one point but neglects a hundred others.”

  7A:30. Mencius said, “Yao and Shun practiced humanity and righteousness because of their nature. King T’ang and King Wu did so because of their personal cultivation. The Five Despots,125 on the contrary, merely borrowed [the names of humanity and righteousness to adorn their acts]. After they had borrowed them for a long time and did not return them, how could it be known that they did not own them?”

  7A:38. Mencius said, “Form and color (our body) are nature endowed by Heaven. It is only the sage who can put his physical form into full use.”