A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  7A:45. Mencius said, “In regard to [inferior] creatures, the superior man loves them but is not humane to them (that is, showing them the feeling due human beings). In regard to people generally, he is humane to them but not affectionate. He is affectionate to his parents and humane to all people. He is humane to all people and feels love for all creatures.”126

  7A:46. Mencius said, “The man of wisdom knows everything, but he considers the things of immediate importance to be the most urgent. The man of humanity loves all, but he considers the effort to cultivate an affection for the worthy to be the most urgent. Even the wisdom of Yao and Shun did not [actually] extend to everything, but they attended urgently to the most important. Their humanity did not extend to the point of [actually] loving all people, but they urgently cultivated the affection for the worthy.”

  7B:3. Mencius said, “It would be better to have no Book of History127 than to believe all of it. In its ‘Completion of War’ section [for example], I accept only two or three passages.128 A man of humanity has no enemy in the world. When a most humane person (King Wu) punished a most inhumane ruler (King Chou), how could the blood (of the people) have flowed till it floated the pestles of the mortars?”129

  7B:14. Mencius said, “[In a state] the people are the most important; the spirits of the land and grain (guardians of territory) are the next; the ruler is of slight importance. Therefore to gain [the hearts of] the peasantry is the way to become an emperor; to gain the [heart of the] emperor is the way to become a feudal lord; and to gain [the heart of the] feudal lord of a state is the way to become a great officer. When a feudal lord (a ruler) endangers the spirits of the land and grain (territory), he is removed and replaced. When sacrificial animals have been well fed, the millet in its vessels has been all pure, and the sacrificial rites have been performed at proper times, if yet there are still droughts and floods [to harm the people], the spirits of the land and grain are removed and replaced.”130

  7B:16. Mencius said, “Humanity is [the distinguishing characteristic of] man.131 When embodied in man’s conduct, it is the Way.”

  7B:24. Mencius said, “It is due to our nature that our mouths desire sweet taste, that our eyes desire beautiful colors, that our ears desire pleasant sounds, that our noses desire fragrant odors, and that our four limbs desire ease and comfort. But there is also fate (ming) [whether these desires are satisfied or not]. The superior man does not say they are man’s nature [and insist on satisfying them]. The virtue of humanity in the relationship between father and son, the virtue of righteousness in the relationship between ruler and minister, the virtue of propriety in the relationship between guest and host, the virtue of wisdom in the worthy, and the sage in regard to the Way of Heaven—these are [endowed in people in various degrees] according to fate. But there is also man’s nature. The superior man does not (refrain from practicing them and) say they are matters of fate.”132

  7B:25. Hao-sheng Pu-hai133 asked, “What sort of man is Yo-cheng?”134 Mencius said, “He is a good man and a true man.” “What is a good man? And what is a true man?” Mencius said, “One who commands our liking [because of his virtue] is called a good man. One who is sincere with himself is called a true man. He [whose goodness] is extensive and solid is called a beautiful man. He [whose goodness] is abundant and is brilliantly displayed is called a great man. When one is great and is completely transformed [to be goodness itself], he is called a sage. When a sage is beyond our knowledge, he is called a man of the spirit.”

  Comment. It is difficult to say how strong the element of mysticism is in Mencius, but there is no doubt that it is present in him as it is in the Doctrine of the Mean. The realm of existence beyond our knowledge is certainly mystical. Fung is right in saying that “forming the same current” with Heaven and Earth is a mystical experience, although in suggesting that “All is complete in me” is also mystical, he has definitely gone too far.135

  7B:31. Mencius said, “All men have some things which they cannot bear. Extend that feeling to what they can bear, and humanity will be the result. All men have some things which they will not do. Extend that feeling to the things that they do, and righteousness will be the result. If a man can give full development to his feeling of not wanting to injure others, his humanity will be more than what he can ever put into practice. If he can give full development to his feeling of not wanting to break in to steal, his righteousness will be more than what he can ever put into practice. If a man can give full development to his real dislike of being addressed, ‘Hey, you,’ he will act according to righteousness wherever he may be. When an officer speaks what he ought not to speak, he is enticing people by speaking. When he does not speak what he ought to speak, he is enticing by not speaking. In both cases he is doing something like breaking in.”

  7B:33. Mencius said, “With Yao and Shun it was their nature. With T’ang and Wu, it was their effort to return [to their nature]. When all movements and expressions are exactly proper according to the rules of propriety, that shows the highest degree of eminent virtue. The sorrow in weeping for the dead is not for the sake of the living. The regular practice of virtue without any deviation is not to seek emolument. And words should always be sincere not because of any conscious desire to do what is right. The superior man practices principle (Natural Law) and waits for destiny (ming, Mandate of Heaven) to take its own course.”136

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  MORAL AND SOCIAL PROGRAMS: THE GREAT LEARNING

  The importance of this little Classic is far greater than its small size would suggest. It gives the Confucian educational, moral, and political programs in a nutshell, neatly summed up in the so-called “three items”: manifesting the clear character of man, loving the people, and abiding in the highest good; and in the “eight steps”: the investigation of things, extension of knowledge, sincerity of the will, rectification of the mind, cultivation of the personal life, regulation of the family, national order, and world peace. Moreover, it is the central Confucian doctrine of humanity (jen) in application. Confucius said that there is a central thread running through his teachings, and that central principle is conscientiousness and altruism, which are two aspects of humanity.1 The eight steps are the blueprints for translating humanity into actual living, carefully maintaining the balance and harmony of the individual on the one side and society on the other. It is because of this significance that the Great Learning has ranked as a Confucian Classic and has exerted profound influence in the last eight hundred years.

  It is no less important from the philosophical point of view. Although the treatise does not discuss metaphysical problems, it does present the investigation of things as the starting point in moral and social life. This is of course perfectly consonant with the Confucian emphasis on learning. However, Confucianists have never agreed on how to learn, and the different interpretations of the investigation of things in this Classic eventually created bitter opposition among Neo-Confucianists. To Chu Hsi (1130-1200), ko-wu meant to investigate things,2 both inductively and deductively, on the premise that principle (li), the reason of being, is inherent in things. He believed that only with a clear knowledge of things can one’s will become sincere. He therefore rearranged the ancient text of the Classic to have the sections on the investigation of things appear before those on sincerity of the will. Wang Yang-ming (Wang Shou-jen, 1472-1529), on the other hand, believing that principle is inherent in the mind, took ko to mean “to correct,” that is, to correct what is wrong in the mind. To him, sincerity of the will, without which no true knowledge is possible, must come before the investigation of things. Therefore he rejected both Chu Hsi’s rearrangement of the text and his doctrine of the investigation of things,3 and based his whole philosophy on the Great Learning, with sincerity of the will as its first principle.4 For centuries Neo-Confucianists of the two schools represented by Chu and Wang debated the issue.

  However, they all agreed on another doctrine of the Great Learning, that is, that the i
nternal and the external, the fundamental and the secondary, and the first and the last, must be clearly distinguished. No other Confucian Classic has presented this idea so clearly and so forcefully. It is also important because the matter is not just one of procedure but involves the basic question of comparative values. In addition, the concept of being watchful over oneself when alone made a deep impression on the Neo-Confucianists, so much so that none has neglected it and some even built their philosophical systems around it. Since the Classic is important for both practical and theoretical reasons, it is no wonder that, from the early fourteenth century to the twentieth, it was a required text in Chinese education. It is here translated in full, with Chu Hsi’s own remarks.

  THE GREAT LEARNING5

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. Master Ch’eng I said,6 “The Great Learning is a surviving work of the Confucian school and is the gate through which the beginning student enters into virtue. It is only due to the preservation of this work that the order in which the ancients pursued their learning may be seen at this time. The Analects and the Book of Mencius are next to it. The student should by all means follow this work in his effort to learn, and then he will probably be free from mistakes.”7

  The Text

  The Way of learning to be great (or adult education) consists in manifesting the clear character, loving8 the people, and abiding (chih)9 in the highest good.

  Only after knowing what to abide in can one be calm. Only after having been calm can one be tranquil. Only after having achieved tranquillity can one have peaceful repose. Only after having peaceful repose can one begin to deliberate. Only after deliberation can the end be attained. Things have their roots and branches. Affairs have their beginnings and their ends. To know what is first and what is last will lead one near the Way.

  The ancients who wished to manifest their clear character to the world would first bring order to their states. Those who wished to bring order to their states would first regulate their families. Those who wished to regulate their families would first cultivate their personal lives. Those who wished to cultivate their personal lives would first rectify their minds. Those who wished to rectify their minds would first make their wills sincere. Those who wished to make their wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The extension of knowledge consists in the investigation of things. When things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world. From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all must regard cultivation of the personal life as the root or foundation. There is never a case when the root is in disorder and yet the branches are in order. There has never been a case when what is treated with great importance becomes a matter of slight importance or what is treated with slight importance becomes a matter of great importance.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above is the text in one chapter. It is the words of Confucius, handed down by Tseng Tzu. The ten chapters of commentary which follow are the views of Tseng Tzu and were recorded by his pupils. In the traditional version there have been some mistakes in its arrangement. Now follows the new version fixed by Master Ch’eng I,10 and in addition, having examined the contents of the text, I (Chu Hsi) have rearranged it as follows:

  Chapters of Commentary

  1. In the “Announcement of K’ang” it is said, “He was able to manifest his clear character.”11 In the “T’ai-chia” it is said, “He contemplated the clear Mandates of Heaven.”12 In the “Canon of Yao” it is said, “He was able to manifest his lofty character.”13 These all show that the ancient kings manifested their own character.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above first chapter of commentary explains manifesting the clear character.

  2. The inscription on the bath-tub of King T’ang14 read, “If you can renovate yourself one day, then you can do so every day, and keep doing so day after day.” In the “Announcement of K’ang,” it is said, “Arouse people to become new.”15 The Book of Odes says, “Although Chou is an ancient state, the mandate it has received from Heaven is new.”16 Therefore, the superior man tries at all times to do his utmost [in renovating himself and others].

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above second chapter of commentary explains the renovating of the people.

  3. The Book of Odes says, “The imperial domain of a thousand li17 is where the people stay (chih).”18 The Book of Odes also says, “The twittering yellow bird rests (chih) on a thickly wooded mount.”19 Confucius said, “When the bird rests, it knows where to rest. Should a human being be unequal to a bird?” The Book of Odes says, “How profound was King Wen! How he maintained his brilliant virtue without interruption and regarded with reverence that which he abided (chih).”20 As a ruler, he abided in humanity. As a minister, he abided in reverence. As a son, he abided in filial piety. As a father, he abided in deep love. And in dealing with the people of the country, he abided in faithfulness.

  The Book of Odes says, “Look at that curve in the Ch’i River. How luxuriant and green are the bamboo trees there! Here is our elegant and accomplished prince. [His personal life is cultivated] as a thing is cut and filed and as a thing is carved and polished. How grave and dignified! How majestic and distinguished! Here is our elegant and accomplished prince. We can never forget him!”21 “As a thing is cut and filed” refers to the pursuit of learning. “As a thing is carved and polished” refers to self-cultivation. “How grave and how dignified” indicates precaution. “How majestic and distinguished” expresses awe-inspiring appearance. “Here is our elegant and accomplished prince. We can never forget him” means that the people cannot forget his eminent character and perfect virtue. The Book of Odes says, “Ah! the ancient kings are not forgotten.”22 [Future] rulers deemed worthy what they deemed worthy and loved what they loved, while the common people enjoyed what they enjoyed and benefited from their beneficial arrangements. That was why they are not forgotten even after they passed away.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above third chapter of commentary explains abiding in the highest good.

  4. Confucius said, “In hearing litigations, I am as good as anyone. What is necessary is to enable people not to have litigations at all.”23 Those who would not tell the truth will not dare to finish their words, and a great awe would be struck into people’s minds. This is called knowing the root.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above fourth chapter of commentary explains the root and the branches.

  5. This is called knowing the root. This is called the perfecting of knowledge.24

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above fifth chapter of commentary explains the meaning of the investigation of things and the extension of knowledge, which is now lost. I have ventured to take the view of Master Ch’eng I and supplement it as follows: The meaning of the expression “The perfection of knowledge depends on the investigation of things (ko-wu)”25 is this: If we wish to extend our knowledge to the utmost, we must investigate the principles of all things we come into contact with, for the intelligent mind of man is certainly formed to know, and there is not a single thing in which its principles do not inhere. It is only because all principles are not investigated that man’s knowledge is incomplete. For this reason, the first step in the education of the adult is to instruct the learner, in regard to all things in the world, to proceed from what knowledge he has of their principles, and investigate further until he reaches the limit. After exerting himself in this way for a long time, he will one day achieve a wide and far-reaching penetration. Then the qualities of all things, whether internal or external, the refined or the coarse, will all be apprehended, and the mind, in its total substance and great functioning, will be perfectly intelligent. This is called the investigation of things. This is called the perfection of knowledge.

  6.
What is meant by “making the will sincere” is allowing no self-deception, as when we hate a bad smell or love a beautiful color. This is called satisfying oneself. Therefore the superior man will always be watchful over himself when alone. When the inferior man is alone and leisurely, there is no limit to which he does not go in his evil deeds. Only when he sees a superior man does he then try to disguise himself, concealing the evil and showing off the good in him. But what is the use? For other people see him as if they see his very heart. This is what is meant by saying that what is true in a man’s heart will be shown in his outward appearance. Therefore the superior man will always be watchful over himself when alone. Tseng Tzu said, “What ten eyes are beholding and what ten hands are pointing to—isn’t it frightening?” Wealth makes a house shining and virtue makes a person shining. When one’s mind is broad and his heart generous, his body becomes big and is at ease. Therefore the superior man always makes his will sincere.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above sixth chapter of commentary explains the sincerity of the will.

  7. What is meant by saying that cultivation of the personal life depends on the rectification of the mind is that when one is affected by wrath to any extent, his mind will not be correct. When one is affected by fear to any extent, his mind will not be correct. When he is affected by fondness to any extent, his mind will not be correct. When he is affected by worries and anxieties, his mind will not be correct. When the mind is not present, we look but do not see, listen but do not hear, and eat but do not know the taste of the food. This is what is meant by saying that the cultivation of the personal life depends on the rectification of the mind.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above seventh chapter of commentary explains the rectification of the mind in order to cultivate the personal life.

  8. What is meant by saying that the regulation of the family depends on the cultivation of the personal life is this: Men are partial toward those for whom they have affection and whom they love, partial toward those whom they despise and dislike, partial toward those whom they fear and revere, partial toward those whom they pity and for whom they have compassion, and partial toward those whom they do not respect. Therefore there are few people in the world who know what is bad in those whom they love and what is good in those whom they dislike. Hence it is said, “People do not know the faults of their sons and do not know (are not satisfied with) the bigness of their seedlings.” This is what is meant by saying that if the personal life is not cultivated, one cannot regulate his family.