A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above eighth chapter of commentary explains the cultivation of the personal life in order to regulate the family.

  9. What is meant by saying that in order to govern the state it is necessary first to regulate the family is this: There is no one who cannot teach his own family and yet can teach others. Therefore the superior man (ruler) without going beyond his family, can bring education into completion in the whole state. Filial piety is that with which one serves his ruler. Brotherly respect is that with which one serves his elders, and deep love is that with which one treats the multitude. The “Announcement of K’ang” says, “Act as if you were watching over an infant.”26 If a mother sincerely and earnestly looks for what the infant wants, she may not hit the mark but she will not be far from it. A young woman has never had to learn about nursing a baby before she marries. When the individual families have become humane, then the whole country will be aroused toward humanity. When the individual families have become compliant, then the whole country will be aroused toward compliance. When one man is greedy or avaricious, the whole country will be plunged into disorder. Such is the subtle, incipient activating force of things. This is what is meant by saying that a single word may spoil an affair and a single man may put the country in order. (Sage-emperors) Yao and Shun27 led the world with humanity and the people followed them. (Wicked kings) Chieh and Chou28 led the world with violence and the people followed them. The people did not follow their orders which were contrary to what they themselves liked. Therefore the superior man must have the good qualities in himself before he may require them in other people.29 He must not have the bad qualities in himself before he may require others not to have them. There has never been a man who does not cherish altruism (shu) in himself and yet can teach other people. Therefore the order of the state depends on the regulation of the family.

  The Book of Odes says, “How young and pretty is that peach tree! How luxuriant is its foliage! This girl is going to her husband’s house. She will rightly order her household.”30 Only when one has rightly ordered his household can he teach the people of the country. The Book of Odes says, “They were correct and good to their elder brothers. They were correct and good to their younger brothers.”31 Only when one is good and correct to one’s elder and younger brothers can one teach the people of the country. The Book of Odes says, “His deportment is all correct, and he rectifies all the people of the country.”32 Because he served as a worthy example as a father, son, elder brother, and younger brother, therefore the people imitated him. This is what is meant by saying that the order of the state depends on the regulation of the family.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above ninth chapter of commentary explains regulating the family to bring order to the state.

  10. What is meant by saying that peace of the world depends on the order of the state is this: When the ruler treats the elders with respect, then the people will be aroused toward filial piety. When the ruler treats the aged with respect, then the people will be aroused toward brotherly respect. When the ruler treats compassionately the young and the helpless, then the common people will not follow the opposite course. Therefore the ruler has a principle with which, as with a measuring square, he may regulate his conduct.

  What a man dislikes in his superiors, let him not show it in dealing with his inferiors; what he dislikes in those in front of him, let him not show it in preceding those who are behind; what he dislikes in those behind him, let him not show it in following those in front of him; what he dislikes in those on the right, let him not apply it to those on the left; and what he dislikes in those on the left, let him not apply it to those on the right. This is the principle of the measuring square.

  The Book of Odes says, “How much the people rejoice in their prince, a parent of the people!”33 He likes what the people like and dislikes what the people dislike. This is what is meant by being a parent of the people. The Book of Odes says, “Lofty is the Southern Mountain! How massive are the rocks! How majestic is the Grand Tutor Yin (of Chou)! The people all look up to you!”34 Thus rulers of states should never be careless. If they deviate from the correct path, they will be cast away by the world. The Book of Odes says, “Before the rulers of the Yin (Shang) dynasty35 lost the support of the people, they could have been counterparts of Heaven.36 Take warning from the Yin dynasty. It is not easy to keep the Mandate of Heaven.”37 This shows that by having the support of the people, they have their countries, and by losing the support of the people, they lose their countries. Therefore the ruler will first be watchful over his own virtue. If he has virtue, he will have the people with him. If he has the people with him, he will have the territory. If he has the territory, he will have wealth. And if he has wealth, he will have its use. Virtue is the root, while wealth is the branch. If he regards the root as external (or secondary) and the branch as internal (or essential), he will compete with the people in robbing each other. Therefore when wealth is gathered in the ruler’s hand, the people will scatter away from him; and when wealth is scattered [among the people], they will gather round him. Therefore if the ruler’s words are uttered in an evil way, the same words will be uttered back to him in an evil way; and if he acquires wealth in an evil way, it will be taken away from him in an evil way. In the “Announcement of K’ang” it is said, “The Mandate of Heaven is not fixed or unchangeable.”38 The good ruler gets it and the bad ruler loses it. In the Book of Ch’u it is said, “The State of Ch’u does not consider anything as treasure; it considers only good [men] as treasure. Uncle Fan (maternal uncle to a prince of Chin in exile) said, Our exiled prince has no treasure; to be humane toward his parents is his only treasure.’ ”39 In the “Oath of Ch’in” it is said, “Let me have but one minister, sincere and single-minded, not pretending to other abilities, but broad and upright of mind, generous and tolerant toward others. When he sees that another person has a certain kind of ability, he is as happy as though he himself had it, and when he sees another man who is elegant and wise, he loves him in his heart as much as if he said so in so many words, thus showing that he can really tolerate others. Such a person can preserve my sons, and grandsons and the black-haired people (the common people). He may well be a great benefit to the country. But when a minister sees another person with a certain kind of ability, he is jealous and hates him, and when he sees another person who is elegant and wise, he blocks him so he cannot advance, thus showing that he really cannot tolerate others. Such a person cannot preserve my sons, grandsons, and the black-haired people. He is a danger to the country.”40 It is only a man of humanity who can send away such a minister and banish him, driving him to live among the barbarian tribes and not allowing him to exist together with the rest of the people in the Middle Kingdom (China). This is what is meant by saying that it is only the man of humanity who can love or who can hate others.41 To see a worthy and not be able to raise him to office, or to be able to raise him but not to be the first one to do so—that is negligence.42 To see bad men and not be able to remove them from office, or to be able to remove them but not to remove them as far away as possible—that is a mistake. To love what the people hate and to hate what the people love—that is to act contrary to human nature, and disaster will come to such a person. Thus we see that the ruler has a great principle to follow. He must attain it through loyalty and faithfulness and will surely lose it through pride and indulgence.

  There is a great principle for the production of wealth. If there are many producers and few consumers, and if people who produce wealth do so quickly and those who spend it do so slowly, then wealth will always be sufficient. A man of humanity develops his personality by means of his wealth, while the inhumane person develops wealth at the sacrifice of his personality. There has never been a case of a ruler who loved humanity and whose people did not love righteousness. There has never been a case where the people loved righteousness and yet the affairs of the state have not been carried to completion. And there has never been a case where in
such a state the wealth collected in the national treasury did not continue in the possession of the ruler.

  The officer Meng-hsien43 said, “He who keeps a horse [one who has just become an official]44 and a carriage does not look after poultry and pigs. [The higher officials] who use ice [in their sacrifices] do not keep cattle and sheep. And the nobles who can keep a hundred carriages do not keep rapacious tax-gathering ministers under them. It is better to have a minister who robs the state treasury than to have such a taxgathering minister. This is what is meant by saying that in a state financial profit is not considered real profit whereas righteousness is considered to be the real profit. He who heads a state or a family and is devoted to wealth and its use must have been under the influence of an inferior man. He may consider this man to be good, but when an inferior man is allowed to handle the country or family, disasters and injuries will come together. Though a good man may take his place, nothing can be done. This is what is meant by saying that in a state financial profit is not considered real profit whereas righteousness is considered the real profit.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. The above tenth chapter of commentary explains ordering the state to bring peace to the world. There are altogether ten commentary chapters. The first four generally discuss the principal topics and the basic import. The last six chapters discuss in detail the items and the required effort involved. Chapter five deals with the essence of the understanding of goodness and chapter six deals with the foundation of making the personal life sincere. These two chapters, especially, represent the immediate task, particularly for the beginning student. The reader should not neglect them because of their simplicity.

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  SPIRITUAL DIMENSIONS: THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN

  The Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning are often mentioned together. Both constitute a chapter in the Li chi (Book of Rites) and were selected by Chu Hsi (1130-1200) to form the “Four Books” with the Analects and the Book of Mencius. Both became Classics and basic texts for civil service examinations from 1313 until 1905. Both exerted tremendous influence in China in the last eight hundred years, especially on Neo-Confucianism, which looked to them as two of their main sources of inspiration. But they are different in many ways. The Great Learning deals with social and political matters, while the Doctrine of the Mean is a discourse on psychology and metaphysics. The Great Learning discusses the mind but not human nature, whereas with the Doctrine of the Mean the opposite is true.1 The Great Learning emphasizes method and procedure, whereas the Doctrine of the Mean concentrates on reality. The Great Learning is generally rational in tone, but the Doctrine of the Mean is religious and mystical. It comes very close to the more mystical aspect of the Book of Mencius, and several passages are almost identical in the two works.2

  Even before this Classic attracted the Neo-Confucianists, its subtle doctrines had strong appeal to both Taoists and Buddhists. From the fourth to the eleventh century, Taoist and Buddhist scholars wrote commentaries on it, and one Buddhist monk in the eleventh century called himself by the name of the book. It formed a bridge between Taoism and Buddhism and the Confucian school and in this way prepared for the influence of Buddhism and Taoism on Confucianism, thus ushering in the Neo-Confucian movement.

  What attracted the Taoists, Buddhists, and the Neo-Confucianists were the two main subjects of the book, the very subjects on which Confucius’ pupils “could not hear his views,”3 namely, human nature and the Way of Heaven. Human nature, endowed by Heaven, is revealed through the states of equilibrium and harmony, which are themselves the “condition of the world” and the “universal path.” The Way of Heaven transcends time, space, substance, and motion, and is at the same time unceasing, eternal, and evident.

  It can readily be seen that the Doctrine of the Mean is a philosophical work, perhaps the most philosophical in the whole body of ancient Confucian literature. It is called chung-yung in Chinese. In the Analects, chung-yung, often translated the “Mean,” denotes moderation but here chung means what is central and yung means what is universal and harmonious. The former refers to human nature, the latter to its relation with the universe. Taken together, it means that there is harmony in human nature and that this harmony underlies our moral being and prevails throughout the universe. In short, man and Nature form a unity. Here is an early expression of the theory that was to dominate Chinese thought throughout its history.

  The quality that brings man and Nature together is ch’eng, sincerity, truth or reality.4 The extensive discussion of this idea in the Classic makes it at once psychological, metaphysical, and religious. Sincerity is not just a state of mind, but an active force that is always transforming things and completing things, and drawing man and Heaven (T’ien, Nature) together in the same current. Insofar as it is mystical, it tends to be transcendental. But its practical aspect has never been forgotten. In fact, if sincerity is to be true, it must involve strenuous effort at learning and earnest effort at practice. After all, yung also means the ordinary, and sincerity is to be tested in ordinary words and ordinary deeds and its truth is understandable to the ordinary man. In the final analysis, the Doctrine of the Mean is a Confucian document, and as such it has never deviated from its central interest in practical affairs.

  It is obvious that the Doctrine of the Mean represents an advance over Confucius. It and the Great Learning seem to embody two different ancient Confucian tendencies, just as later Mencius and Hsün Tzu (fl. 298–238 b.c.) represented two different schools of thought. Some scholars have suggested that the Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning are offshoots of the teachings of Mencius and Hsün Tzu, respectively.5 This theory is interesting but not substantiated. Mencius and Hsün Tzu are opposed at many points. The Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning are not, although they are different—one of the reasons why they have been often spoken of together.

  Following the list of its major topics and their reference, the work is translated below in full.

  Heaven and Man: 13, 20, 22

  Human relations: 13, 17, 19, 20

  Knowledge and Conduct: 14, 20, 27

  Mean and Harmony: 1-4, 6-11, 20, 27

  Moral virtues: 13, 17, 19, 20, 25

  Nature and Destiny: 1, 14, 21, 22, 25, 27

  Sincerity: 16, 20-26, 32

  Universe: 22, 23, 26, 30

  Way (Tao) and Education: 1, 5, 12, 13, 20, 21, 23

  THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN6

  Chu Hsi’s Remark: “Master Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) said, ‘By chung (central) is meant what is not one-sided, and by yung (ordinary) is meant what is unchangeable. Chung is the correct path of the world and yung is the definite principle of the world.’ ‘This work represents the central way7 in which the doctrines of the Confucian school have been transmitted.’ Fearing that in time errors should arise, Tzu-ssu wrote it down and transmitted it to Mencius. The book ‘first speaks of one principle, next it spreads out to cover the ten thousand things, and finally returns and gathers them all under the one principle.’ Unroll it, and it reaches in all directions. Roll it up, and it withdraws and lies hidden in minuteness. ‘Its meaning and interest are inexhaustible.’8 The whole of it is solid learning. If the skillful reader will explore and brood over it and apprehend it, he may apply it throughout his life, and will find it inexhaustible.”

  1. What Heaven (T’ien, Nature) imparts to man is called human nature. To follow9 our nature is called the Way (Tao). Cultivating the Way is called education. The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment. What can be separated from us is not the Way. Therefore the superior man is cautious over what he does not see and apprehensive over what he does not hear. There is nothing more visible than what is hidden and nothing more manifest than what is subtle. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself when he is alone.

  Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused it is called equilibrium (chung, centrality, mean). When these feelings are aroused and e
ach and all attain due measure and degree, it is called harmony. Equilibrium is the great foundation of the world, and harmony its universal path. When equilibrium and harmony are realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will attain their proper order and all things will flourish.

  Chu Hsi’s Remark. “In the above first chapter, Tzu-ssu relates the ideas which had been transmitted to him, as the basis of discourse. First, it shows clearly that the origin of the Way is traced to Heaven and is unchangeable, while its concrete substance is complete in ourselves and may not be departed from. Next, it speaks of the essentials of preserving, nourishing, and examining the mind. Finally, it speaks of the meritorious achievements and transforming influence of the sage and the spirit man in their highest degree. Tzu-ssu’s hope was that the student should hereby return to search within himself to find these truths, so that he might remove his selfish desires aroused by external temptations, and realize in full measure the goodness which is natural to him. This is what scholar Yang meant when he said that this chapter is the quintessence of the whole work.10 In the following ten chapters, Tzu-ssu quotes Confucius in order fully to develop the meaning of this chapter.”