A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  The Grand Master86 said, “Tao covers and supports all things. How overflowingly great! The ruler should cast away his [selfish] mind. To act without taking an [unnatural] action means Nature. To speak without any action means virtue. To love people and benefit all things means humanity (jen). To identify with all without each losing his own identity means greatness. To behave without purposely showing any superiority means broadness. To possess an infinite variety means richness. Therefore to adhere to virtue is called discipline. To realize virtue means strength. To be in accord with Tao means completeness. And not to yield to material things is called perfection. If a superior man understands these ten points, he surely makes up his mind and all the world will come to him like rushing water.” (ch. 12, nhcc, 5:1a-3a)

  6. Nature vs. Man

  The Spirit of the North Sea said to Uncle River,87 “A huge beam can knock down a city wall but cannot repair a breach which shows that different things have different capacities. Famous horses can travel a thousand li88 in one day, but for catching rats they are not equal to a fox or a wild cat, which shows that different things have different skills. An owl can catch fleas at night, and sees the tip of a hair, but in the daytime even with its eyes wide open it cannot see a mountain, which shows that different things have different natures. Therefore it is said, ‘Why not let us follow the right instead of the wrong, and follow order instead of chaos?’ This is to misunderstand the principle (li) of nature and the reality of things. It is like following heaven but not earth, and following yin but not yang. It is clear that it will not do. But people keep on saying that without stop. They must be either stupid or wrong.

  “Emperors and kings yielded their thrones in different ways, and the Three Dynasties89 succeeded each other under different conditions. One who is out of step with the times and goes against the tide is a usurper, but one who is in keeping with the times and follows the tide is a man of high character. Better keep quiet, Uncle River. How do you know the distinction between noble and humble families and between the great and small houses?”

  “Then what shall I do?” asked Uncle River. “What shall I not do? Should I accept or reject, advance or withdraw?”

  The Spirit of the North Sea said, “From the point of view of Tao, what is noble and what is humble? They all merge into one. Never stick to one’s own intention and thus handicap the operation of Tao. What is much and what is little? They replace and apply to each other. Never follow one stubborn course of action and thus deviate from Tao. Be serious as the ruler is to his people who is impartial in his kindness. Be as at ease as the sacrifice at the Spirit of Earth, where blessings are asked for all. And be as comprehensive as the four directions which know no limit and have no boundaries. Embrace all things without inclining to this or that way. This means not tending to any direction.

  “All things are one. Which is short and which is long? Tao has neither beginning nor end. Things are born and die, and their completion cannot be taken for granted. They are now empty and now full, and their physical form is not fixed in one place. The years cannot be retained. Time cannot be arrested. The succession of decline, growth, fullness, and emptiness go in a cycle, each end becoming a new beginning. This is the way to talk about the workings of the great principle and to discuss the principle of all things. The life of things passes by like a galloping horse. With no activity is it not changing, and at no time is it not moving. What shall we do? What shall we not do? The thing to do is to leave it to self-transformation.”

  Uncle River said, “In that case, what is the value of Tao?”

  “One who knows Tao will surely penetrate the principle of things,” said the Spirit of the North Sea, “and one who penetrates the principle of things will surely understand their application in various situations. He who understands their application in various situations will not injure himself with material things. A man of perfect virtue cannot be burnt by fire, nor drowned by water, nor hurt by the cold of winter or the heat of summer, or harmed by animals. It does not mean that he puts himself in these situations. It means that he discriminates between safety and danger, remains calm whether he suffers calamity or enjoys blessing, and is careful about taking or not taking an action, so that none can harm him. Therefore it is said that what is natural lies within and what is human lies without, and virtue abides in the natural. Know the action of Nature and man, follow Nature as the basis and be at ease with one’s own situation, then one can expand or contract as times may require. This is the essential of learning and the ultimate of truth.”

  “What do you mean by Nature and what do you mean by man?”

  The Spirit of the North Sea replied, “A horse or a cow has four feet. That is Nature. Put a halter around the horse’s head and put a string through the cow’s nose, that is man. Therefore it is said, ‘Do not let man destroy Nature. Do not let cleverness destroy destiny. And do not sacrifice your name for gain.’ Guard carefully your nature and do not let it go astray. This is called returning to one’s true nature.” (ch. 17, nhcc, 6:17b-21b)

  7. Calmness of Mind

  Do not be the possessor of fame. Do not be the storehouse of schemes. Do not take over the function of things. Do not be the master of knowledge (to manipulate things). Personally realize the infinite to the highest degree and travel in the realm of which there is no sign. Exercise fully what you have received from Nature without any subjective viewpoint. In one word, be absolutely vacuous (hsü) .90

  The mind of the perfect man is like a mirror. It does not lean forward or backward in its response to things. It responds to things but conceals nothing of its own. Therefore it is able to deal with things without injury to [its reality], (ch. 7, nhcc, 3:35b-36a)

  Comment. The mirror is an important symbol for the mind both in Zen Buddhism and in Neo-Confucianism. The difference is that with Buddhism, external reality is to be transcended, whereas with Chuang Tzu and Neo-Confucianists, external reality is to be responded to naturally and faithfully, like a mirror objectively reflecting all.91

  8. Sageliness and Kingliness

  The evolution of the Tao of Nature goes on without obstruction. Therefore all things are produced. The evolution of the Tao of the sovereign goes on without obstruction and therefore the whole empire comes to him. The evolution of the Tao of the sage goes on without obstruction and therefore the whole world pays him homage. He who understands Nature penetrates the way of the sage, and possesses the virtue of emperors and kings to the extent of the six directions (space) and the four seasons (time) will be able to leave things to take their own course, to be dimmed in his brilliancy, and to be tranquil in all respects. The sage is tranquil not because he says to himself, “It is good to be tranquil,” and therefore became tranquil. He is tranquil because nothing disturbs him.

  When water is tranquil, its clearness reflects even the beard and the eyebrows. It remains definitely level, and master carpenters take it as their model. If water is clear when it is tranquil, how much more so is the spirit? When the mind of the sage is tranquil, it becomes the mirror of the universe and the reflection of all things.

  Vacuity, tranquillity, mellowness, quietness, and taking no action characterize the things of the universe at peace and represent the ultimate of Tao and virtue. Therefore rulers and sages abide in them. Abiding leads to vacuity (embracing all). Vacuity leads to actuality. Actuality leads to the establishment of order among all things. Vacuity leads to tranquillity, tranquillity leads to activity, and activity leads to adjustment. Tranquillity leads to taking no action, and taking no action leads to everyone fulfilling his duty. Because one takes no action, one is at peace himself, and when one is at peace himself, no worry or sorrow can affect him and he enjoys long life.

  Vacuity, tranquillity, mellowness, quietness, and taking no action are the root of all things. To understand them and to rule with them was how Yao was an emperor, and to understand them and to serve with them was how Shun was a minister. These are the virtue of rulers and emperors when they manage t
hings above. They are the way of the profound mysterious sage and the uncrowned king92 when they manage things below. When a person retires with these virtues and roams at leisure, all the scholars in the rivers and seas and hills and forests will admire him. If one assumes office with them to pacify the world, his achievements will be great and his fame will be prominent, and the empire will become unified. In tranquillity he becomes a sage, and in activity he becomes a king. He takes no action and is honored. He is simple and plain and none in the world can compete with him in excellence. For such a one understands this virtue of Heaven and Earth. He is called the great foundation and the great source of all being and is in harmony with Nature. One who is in accord with the world is in harmony with men. To be in harmony with men means human happiness, and to be in harmony with Nature means the happiness of Nature, (ch. 13, nhcc, 5:21b-24a)

  Comment. The equal importance of tranquillity and activity expressed here should dispel once and for all any doubt that the philosophy of Chuang Tzu is not the quietism of the Buddhist type. The idea that one should have sageliness within and kingliness without also means a balanced life. This latter idea later became a central one in Neo-Taoism.

  9. The Equality of Life and Death

  Chuang Tzu’s wife died and Hui Tzu went to offer his condolence. He found Chuang Tzu squatting on the ground and singing, beating on an earthen bowl. He said, “Someone has lived with you, raised children for you and now she has aged and died. Is it not enough that you should not shed any tear? But now you sing and beat the bowl. Is this not too much?”

  “No,” replied Chuang Tzu. “When she died, how could I help being affected? But as I think the matter over, I realize that originally she had no life; and not only no life, she had no form; not only no form, she had no material force (ch’i). In the limbo of existence and non-existence, there was transformation and the material force was evolved. The material force was transformed to be form, form was transformed to become life, and now birth has transformed to become death. This is like the rotation of the four seasons, spring, summer, fall, and winter. Now she lies asleep in the great house (the universe). For me to go about weeping and wailing would be to show my ignorance of destiny. Therefore I desist.” (ch. 18, nhcc, 6:31b-32a)

  10. Subjectivity

  Chuang Tzu and Hui Tzu were taking a leisurely walk along the dam of the Hao River. Chuang Tzu said, “The white fish are swimming at ease. This is the happiness of the fish.”

  “You are not fish,” said Hui Tzu. “How do you know its happiness?”

  “You are not I,” said Chuang Tzu. “How do you know that I do not know the happiness of the fish?”

  Hui Tzu said, “Of course I do not know, since I am not you. But you are not the fish, and it is perfectly clear that you do not know the happiness of the fish.”

  “Let us get at the bottom of the matter,” said Chuang Tzu. “When you asked how I knew the happiness of the fish, you already knew that I knew the happiness of the fish but asked how. I knew it along the river.” (ch. 17, nhcc, 6:28a-29a)

  11. The Inner Spirit

  When Prince Yüan of Sung was about to have a portrait painted, all official painters came, bowed, and at the royal command stood waiting, licking their brushes and mixing their ink. Half of them were outside the room. One official came late. He sauntered in without hurrying himself, bowed at the royal command and would not remain standing. Thereupon he was given lodging. The prince sent a man to see what he did. He took off his clothes and squatted down bare-backed. The ruler said, “He will do. He is a true painter.” (ch. 21, nhcc, 7:36b)

  Comment. In this simple story lies a basic principle of Chinese art. It is expressed in the phrase “taking off clothes and squatting down bare-backed,” which has become a key phrase in essays on Chinese aesthetics. It means that art is dedicated to the expression of the inner spirit instead of physical verisimilitude and that painting should be a spontaneous and instantaneous flow of the brush.

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  MO TZU’S DOCTRINES OF UNIVERSAL LOVE, HEAVEN, AND SOCIAL WELFARE

  Students of Chinese thought are likely to think that Confucianism and Taoism have been the two outstanding indigenous philosophical systems in China. This is true so far as the last two thousand years are concerned. In ancient China, up to the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 b.c.–a.d. 220), the greatest schools were Confucianism and Moism.1 They dominated the intellectual scene from the fifth to at least the third century b.c. And they vigorously attacked each other.

  The two were bitter enemies because in their doctrines they were diametrically opposed. While Confucius took the Western Chou (1111–770 b.c.) as his model, Mo Tzu looked to the Hsia (2183–1752 b.c?) instead. The whole Confucian ethical system is based on the concept of humanity (jen), whereas Mo Tzu (fl. 479–438 b.c.)2 based his on the concept of righteousness (i). Both are of course human values. But while Confucianists kept humanity essentially a human value, Mo Tzu traced righteousness to the will of Heaven. To the Confucianists, Heaven does not directly exert its will but leaves the moral law to operate by itself. To Mo Tzu, however, the will of Heaven determines all. Mo Tzu strongly condemns ceremonies, music, elaborate funerals, and the belief in fate (ming, destiny), all of which were promoted by Confucius and his followers. For Confucius, moral life is desirable for its own sake, whereas for Mo Tzu it is desirable because of the benefits it brings. Even his concept of the will of Heaven is colored by this utilitarian approach.

  The greatest divergence between Confucianism and Moism, however, is on the issue of human relations. What distinguishes the Moist movement is its doctrine of universal love: other people’s parents, families, and countries are to be treated like one’s own. This is of course absolutely incompatible with the basic Confucian doctrine of love with distinctions: while love should embrace all, it must start with love for one’s parents; therefore, one has a special obligation of filial piety to parents. Thus there is a gradation or degree in human relations. If the Moist doctrine were adopted, the whole Confucian system would be destroyed from its very foundation. This was the reason why Mencius attacked Moism mercilessly.3

  The Moists challenged the Confucianists not only in theory, but also in actual practice. Like Confucius, Mo Tzu traveled from one state to another offering help to rulers. He did not hesitate to walk for ten days and ten nights in an effort to dissuade a ruler from making war, for he strongly condemned war. One might even say that the Confucianists and the Moists represented two entirely different groups of people. While Confucian followers came from all classes of society and Confucianism is basically equalitarian, they represented and aimed at producing an élite. We are not sure who the Moists were. The name Mo may have been a family name or may have denoted a form of punishment. The fact that Mo Tzu’s followers were ascetics and had “elders” suggests that they might have been prisoners or slaves. All speculation aside, the fact remains that they may have represented the working class. If this is correct, then the opposition between Confucianism and Moism is a foregone conclusion.

  We know very little about Mo Tzu himself. His private name was Ti. He was a native of either Sung or Lu, Confucius’ native state. He was once the chief officer of Sung. Some say he was at first a follower of Confucianism and then turned to be an opponent. Eventually he had about three hundred followers. His dates are uncertain except that probably he was bom before Confucius died and died before Mencius was born. Aside from continuing his ethical teachings, his followers also developed some epistemological interest and evolved a crude system of definition and argumentation, perhaps in order to defend their peculiar doctrines. Both of these teachings disappeared soon after the third century b.c. Ever since then, no Moist philosopher has appeared. The centuries of war in which Moism thrived was no time for intellectual hair-splitting and sophistry, and their condemnation of war did not endear them to rulers. Their asceticism and utilitarianism were too extreme to be practicable. But why did their lofty doctrine of universal love
fail to continue? Was it too idealistic for the Chinese? Or was it inherently weak because it is largely motivated by the benefits it would bring?4 The question is open to speculation. One thing is certain, and that is, philosophically Moism is shallow and unimportant. It does not have the profound metaphysical presuppositions of either Taoism or Confucianism. Consequently it was only a temporary challenge to other schools, though a strong one. In the last two thousand years, it was philosophically profound Taoism and Buddhism, and not Moism, that provided Confucianism with stimulation and challenge. Modern interest in Moism arose in China because of its utilitarian spirit, and in the West because of its superficial resemblance to the Christian teachings of the will of God and universal love. This interest is likely to be temporary. However, to understand ancient Chinese thought, a study of Moism is indispensable. The following translations include the three most important chapters and additional selections of Mo Tzu’s work.

  THE MO TZU5

  A. Universal Love, Pt. 2 (ch. 15)

  Mo Tzu said: What the man of humanity devotes himself to surely lies in the promotion of benefits for the world and the removal of harm from the world. This is what he devotes himself to.

  But what are the benefits and the harm of the world?

  Mo Tzu said: Take the present cases of mutual attacks among states, mutual usurpation among families, and mutual injuries among individuals, or the lack of kindness and loyalty between ruler and minister, of parental affection and filial piety between father and son, and of harmony and peace among brothers. These are harms in the world.

  But when we examine6 these harms, whence did they arise? Did they arise out of want of mutual love?