A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy
Page 27
Mo Tzu said: They arise out of want of mutual love. At present feudal lords know only to love their own states and not those of others. Therefore they do not hesitate to mobilize their states to attack others. Heads of families know only to love their own families and not those of others. Therefore they do not hesitate to mobilize their families to usurp others. And individuals know only to love their own persons and not those of others. Therefore they do not hesitate to mobilize their own persons to injure others. For this reason, as feudal lords do not love one another, they will fight in the fields. As heads of families do not love one another, they will usurp one another. As individuals do not love one another, they will injure one another. When ruler and minister do not love each other, they will not be kind and loyal. When father and son do not love each other, they will not be affectionate and filial. When brothers do not love one another, they will not be harmonious and peaceful. When nobody in the world loves any other, the strong will surely overcome the weak, [The many will oppress the few],7 the rich will insult the poor. The honored will despise the humble, and the cunning will deceive the ignorant. Because of want of mutual love, all the calamities, usurpations, hatred, and animosity in the world have arisen. Therefore the man of humanity condemns it.
Now that it is condemned, what should take its place?
Mo Tzu said: It should be replaced by the way of universal love and mutual benefit.
What is the way of universal love and mutual benefit?
Mo Tzu said: It is to regard other people’s countries as one’s own. Regard other people’s families as one’s own. Regard other people’s person as one’s own. Consequently, when feudal lords love one another, they will not fight in the fields. When heads of families love one another, they will not usurp one another. When individuals love one another, they will not injure one another. When ruler and minister love each other, they will be kind and loyal. When father and son love each other, they will be affectionate and filial. When brothers love each other, they will be peaceful and harmonious. When all the people in the world love one another, the strong will not overcome the weak, the many will not oppress the few, the rich will not insult the poor, the honored will not despise the humble, and the cunning will not deceive the ignorant. Because of universal love, all the calamities, usurpations, hatred, and animosity in the world may be prevented from arising. Therefore the man of humanity praises it.
But now gentlemen of the world would say: Yes, it will be good if love becomes universal. Nevertheless, it is something distant and difficult to practice.
Mo Tzu said: This is simply because gentlemen of the world fail to recognize its benefit and understand its reason. Now, to besiege a city, to fight in the fields, and to sacrifice one’s own life for fame are what all people consider difficult. And yet when a ruler likes them, his multitude can do them. Besides, to love one another universally and to benefit one another mutually is different from these. Those who love others will be loved by others. Those who benefit others will be benefited by others. Those who hate others will be hated by others. And those who harm others will be harmed by others. Then, what difficulty is there with this universal love? Only the ruler does not make it his governmental measure and officers do not make it their conduct.
Comment. The motive of benefits is behind all Moist doctrines. Confucianists throughout history have condemned benefits as motivation instead of righteousness. For Confucius, a main difference between a superior man and an inferior man is that the former is after righteousness and the latter after benefits.8 Not that Confucianism renounces benefits. On the contrary, it promotes them. But they should be the results of good deeds, not the motivation for them. Mo Tzu does emphasize righteousness, but to him righteousness is to be understood in terms of beneficial results.
Formerly, Duke Wen9 of Chin liked his officers to wear coarse clothing. Therefore all his ministers wore [simple] sheepskin garments, carried their swords in [unadorned] leather girdles, and put on hats of plain cloth. Thus attired, they appeared before the ruler inside and walked around the court outside. What was the reason for this? It was because the ruler liked it and therefore the ministers could do it. Formerly, King Ling10 of Ch’u wanted people to have slender waists. Therefore all his ministers limited themselves to one meal a day. They exhaled before they tied their belts. They leaned against the wall before they could stand upi Within a year all at court looked thin and dark. What was the reason for this? It was because the ruler liked it and therefore the ministers could do it. Formerly, King Kou-chien11 of Yüeh liked his officers to be brave. He trained his ministers, gathered them together, set his palace boat on fire and, to test his officers, said that all the treasure of Yüeh was there. The King of Yüeh himself beat the drum to urge them on. As the officers heard the drum, they rushed in disorder. More than a hundred stepped into the fire and died. Then the King of Yüeh beat the gong to let them retreat.
Therefore Master Mo said: Now, to eat little, to wear coarse clothing, and to sacrifice one’s life for fame are things all people in the world consider difficult. But if the ruler likes them, the multitude can do them. Besides, universal love and mutual benefit are different from these. Those who love others will thereby be loved by them. Those who benefit others will thereby be benefited by them. Those who hate others will thereby be hated by them. And those who harm others will thereby be harmed by them. What difficulty is there in this (universal love)? Only the ruler does not make it his governmental measure and officers do not make it their conduct.
Comment. Universal love is promoted by Moism because of its beneficial results. There is no conviction that it is dictated by the inherently good nature of man or by the inherent goodness of the act. Although Confucianism teaches love with distinctions, it also teaches love for all, but it does so on the grounds of moral necessity and of the innate goodness of man.12
But now gentlemen of the world would say: Yes, it will be good if love becomes universal. Nevertheless, it is something impracticable. It is like grappling with Mount T’ai and leaping over the Chi River.13
Mo Tzu said: The analogy is wrong. To grapple with Mount T’ai and leap across River Chi would be truly an extreme feat of strength. From antiquity down to the present day none has been able to do it. Besides, universal love and mutual benefit are different from this. Ancient sage-kings did practice them. How do we know this to be the case? In ancient times, when Yü14 was ruling the empire, he dug the West and the Yü-tou Rivers in the west to release the water from the Ch’ü-sun-huang River. In the north he built a dam across the Yüan-ku River in order to fill the Hou-chih-ti and Hu-ch’ih Rivers. Mount Ti-chu was used as a water divide and a tunnel was dug through Lung-men Mountain. All this was done for the benefit of the Yen, Tai, Hu, and Ho tribes and the people west of the Yellow River. In the east, he drained the great plain and built dikes around the Meng-chu marshes and the water was divided into nine canals in order to regulate the water in the east and to benefit the people of the district of Chi. In the south he regulated the Yangtze, Han, Huai, and Ju Rivers so their water flowed eastward and emptied into the Five Lakes, in order to benefit the peoples of Ching, Ch’u, Kan, and Yüeh and the barbarians of the south. This is the story of Yü’s accomplishments. This shows that my doctrine of universal love has been practiced.
Comment. While Confucianists cited historical examples for inspiration and as models, Mo Tzu cited them to show that his teachings had been demonstrated. The difference between the idealistic and practical approach is clear.
In ancient times, when King Wen15 ruled the Western Land, he shone like the sun and the moon all over the four quarters as well as the Western Land. He did not permit a big state to oppress a small state, or the multitude to oppress the widow or widower, or the ruthless and powerful to rob people’s grains or live stocks. Heaven recognized his deeds and visited him with blessings. Consequently, the old and childless were well adjusted and enjoyed their full life span, the lonely and brotherless had opportunity to fulfill
their work among mankind,16 and the orphaned had the support to grow up. This is the story of King Wen’s accomplishment. It shows that my doctrine of universal love has been practiced.
In ancient times when King Wu17 was about to sacrifice to Mount T’ai, it was recorded, he said, “Mount T’ai, virtuous descendent King of the Chou assumed a great undertaking [to remove wicked King Chou18 of the Shang] and now the great undertaking has been accomplished. Men of humanity have arisen, and I pray the Lord on High to save the people of the Middle Kingdom (China) and the various barbarian tribes. Although King Chou had his near relatives, they cannot compare with my men of humanity. If there is any blame anywhere, the responsibility rests with me alone.”19 This is the story of King Wu’s accomplishment. It shows that my doctrine of universal love has been practiced.
Therefore Mo Tzu said: If rulers of the world today really want the empire to be wealthy and hate to have it poor, want it to be orderly and hate to have it chaotic, they should practice universal love and mutual benefit. This is the way of the sage-kings and the principle of governing the empire, and it should not be neglected, (sptk, 4:3a-8a.)
B. The Will of Heaven, Pt. 1 (ch. 26)
Mo Tzu said: Gentlemen of the world today know small things and do not know great things. How do we know? We know from their conduct at home. If in their conduct at home they should offend their elders, there are still the homes of neighbors to which to flee. Yet relatives, brothers, and acquaintances all warn and admonish them, saying, “You must be cautious. You must be careful. How can it be to offend elders in one’s conduct at home?” Not only is this true of conduct at home. It is also true of conduct in the state. If in one’s conduct in the state one should offend the ruler, there are still the neighboring states to which to flee. Yet relatives, brothers, and acquaintances all warn and caution him, saying, “You must be cautious. You must be careful. How can it be to offend the ruler in one’s conduct in the state?” These are people who have places to flee. Yet the warning and caution to them are strong like this. Should the warning and caution not be much stronger for those who have no place to flee? There is a saying: “If one commits a sin in daylight, where can he flee?” I say: There is no place to flee. For Heaven should not be regarded as a forest, a valley, or an obscure gate20 where no one is present. It will surely see the evil action clearly. But with regard to Heaven, gentlemen of the world today are all negligent and do not warn and caution one another. This is how we know that the gentlemen in the world know small things but do not know great things.
Now what does Heaven want and what does Heaven dislike? Heaven wants righteousness and dislikes unrighteousness. Therefore, in leading the people in the world to engage in practicing righteousness, I should be doing what Heaven wants. When I do what Heaven wants, Heaven also does what I want. Now, what do I want and what do I dislike? I want happiness and wealth, and dislike calamities and misfortunes. [If I do not do what Heaven wants and do what Heaven does not want,] then I should be leading the people in the world to devote themselves to calamities and misfortunes. But how do we know that Heaven wants righteousness and dislikes unrighteousness? I say: With righteousness the world lives and without righteousness the world dies, with it the world becomes rich and without it the world becomes poor, with it the world becomes orderly and without it the world becomes chaotic. Now, Heaven wants to have the world live and dislikes to have it die, wants to have it rich and dislikes to have it poor, and wants to have it orderly and dislikes to have it chaotic. Therefore I know Heaven wants righteousness and dislikes unrighteousness.
Comment. Even the will of Heaven and righteousness are explained in terms of practical results.
Moreover, righteousness is the standard.21 It is not to be given by the subordinate to the superior but must be given from the superior to the subordinate. Therefore, the common people should attend to their work with all their might, and should not forthwith22 set up the standard themselves. There are minor officials to give them the standard. Minor officials should attend to their work with all their might and should not forthwith set the standard themselves. There are great officials to give them the standard.23 Great officials should attend to their work with all their might and should not forthwith set the standard themselves. There are the three ministers24 and the several feudal lords to give them the standard. The three ministers and the several feudal lords should attend to government with all their might and should not forthwith set the standard themselves. There is the Son of Heaven (emperor) to give them the standard. The emperor should not forthwith set the standard himself. There is Heaven to give him the standard. Gentlemen of the world of course clearly understand that the emperor gives the standard to the three ministers, the several feudal lords, the minor officials, and the common people, but the common people of the world do not clearly understand that Heaven gives the standard to the emperor. Therefore the ancient sage-kings of the Three Dynasties,25 Yü, T’ang,26 and Wu, desiring to make it clear to the common people that Heaven gives the standard to the emperor, all fed oxen and sheep with grass and dogs and pigs with grain, and cleanly prepared pastry and wine to sacrifice to the Lord on High and spiritual beings and pray to Heaven for blessing. But I have not heard of Heaven praying to the emperor for blessing. I therefore know that Heaven gives the standard to the emperor.
Thus the emperor is the most honorable in the world and the richest in the world. Therefore those who desire honor and wealth cannot but obey the will of Heaven. Those who obey the will of Heaven love universally and benefit each other, and will surely obtain rewards. Those who oppose the will of Heaven set themselves apart from each other, hate each other, and injure each other, and will surely incur punishment. Now, who were those who obeyed the will of Heaven and obtained rewards and who were those who opposed the will of Heaven and incurred punishment?
Mo Tzu said: The ancient sage-kings of the Three Dynasties, Yü, T’ang, Wen, and Wu, were those who obeyed the will of Heaven and obtained rewards. The wicked kings of the Three Dynasties, Chieh,27 Chou, Yu,28 and Li,29 were those who opposed the will of Heaven and incurred punishment.
Well, how did Yü, T’ang, Wen, and Wu obtain rewards? Mo Tzu said: On the highest level they honored Heaven, on the middle level they served spiritual beings, and on the lower level they loved the people. Thereupon the will of Heaven proclaimed, “They love universally those whom I love. They benefit universally those whom I benefit. Such love of people is really universal and such benefit to people is really substantial.” Therefore Heaven caused them to have the honor of being Sons of Heaven and possess the wealth of the whole empire. Their heritages were continued by the descendants of ten thousand generations, who continually praised their good deeds. They spread [benefits] all over the world, and people praise them to this day, calling them sage-kings.
Well, how did Chieh, Chou, Yu, and Li incur punishment? Mo Tzu said: On the highest level they blasphemed against Heaven, on the middle level they blasphemed against spiritual beings, and on the lower level they injured the people. Thereupon the will of Heaven proclaimed, “They set themselves apart from those whom I love and hated them. They injure all those whom I benefit. Such hatred of people is really universal and such injury to people is really substantial.” Therefore Heaven caused them not to live out their life-span or to survive their generation. They are condemned to this day and are called wicked kings.
But how do we know that Heaven loves all the people in the world? Because it enlightens them all. How do we know that it enlightens them all? Because it possessses them all. How do we know that it possesses them all? Because it feeds them all. How do we know that it feeds them all? I say: Within the four seas (the world) all grain-eating (civilized) people feed oxen and sheep with grass and dogs and pigs with grain, and cleanly prepare pastry and wine to sacrifice to the Lord on High and spiritual beings. Possessing all people, how could Heaven not love them? Moreover, I declare that for the murder of one innocent person, there will surely be one misfortune. Who is
it that murders the innocent person? It is man. Who is it that sends down misfortune? It is Heaven. If it is thought that Heaven does not love the people of the world, why does it send misfortune because a man murders a man? This is why I know that Heaven loves the people of the world.
To obey the will of Heaven is to use righteousness as the method of control. To oppose the will of Heaven is to use force as the method of control.30 What will happen if righteousness is used as a method of control? Mo Tzu said: A ruler of a big state will not attack a small state. A ruler of a large family will not usurp a small family. The strong will not plunder the weak. The honored will not despise the humble. And the cunning will not deceive the ignorant. This is beneficial to Heaven on the highest level, beneficial to spiritual beings on the middle level, and beneficial to man on the lower level. Being beneficial to these three means being beneficial to all. Therefore the whole world gives them a good name and calls them sage-kings.
Comment. In teaching obedience to the will of Heaven, Mo Tzu was the most religious of ancient Chinese philosophers. No one else relied on religious sanction as much as he did. Some scholars even suggested that he founded a religion, assuming that his followers formed some sort of a religious group. If so, he was the only personal religious founder in ancient China.
Those who use force as the way of control will act differently. Their words will be different and their action will be the opposite, like galloping back to back. A ruler of a large state will attack a small state. A ruler of a large family will usurp a small family. The strong will plunder the weak. The honorable will despise the humble. And the cunning will deceive the ignorant. This is not beneficial to Heaven on the highest level, not beneficial to spiritual beings on the middle level, and not beneficial to people on the lower level. Not being beneficial to these three means not being beneficial to all. Therefore the whole world gives them a bad name and calls them wicked kings.