A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Mo Tzu said: The will of Heaven to me is like the compasses to the wheelwright and the square to the carpenter. The wheelwright and the carpenter apply their square and compasses to measure all square and circular objects in the world. They say that those that fit are correct and those that do not fit are not correct. The writings of the scholars and gentlemen of the world today cannot all be loaded in carts and the many doctrines they teach cannot all be enumerated. They try to persuade the feudal lords above and various minor officials below. But as to humanity and righteousness, they are far, far off the mark. How do I know? I say: I have the shining model in the world (the will of Heaven) to measure them, (sptk, 7:1a-6a)

  C. Attack on Fatalism, Pt. 1 (ch. 35)

  Mo Tzu said: In ancient times kings, dukes, and great officials, who ruled the state all wanted their country to be rich, their population to be large, and their administration of government to be orderly. But instead of wealth they got poverty, instead of a large population they got a small population, and instead of order they got chaos. Fundamentally this is to lose what they desired but to get what they disliked. What is the reason? Mo Tzu said: It was due to the large number of fatalists among the people.

  The fatalists say: When fate (ming) decrees that the country shall be wealthy, it will be wealthy. When it decrees that it shall be poor, it will be poor. When fate decrees that the population shall be large, it will be large. When it decrees that it shall be small, it will be small. When it decrees that the country shall be orderly, it will be orderly. When it decrees that it shall be chaotic, it will be chaotic. When fate decrees that one shall enjoy longevity, one will enjoy longevity. And when fate decrees that one will suffer brevity of life, he will suffer brevity of life. What is the use of exerting strong [effort]?31 With this doctrine they tried to persuade the kings, dukes, and great officials above and to prevent the common people from doing their work. Therefore the fatalists are not men of humanity. Their doctrine must be clearly examined.

  Comment. Both Confucianists and Taoists discussed ming in its more fundamental aspect of destiny, that is, man’s endowment and function in relation to the total existence of the universe. Mo Tzu, however, looked at ming only in its narrow meaning of fate, and he discussed it primarily from the point of view of its effects. The deeper philosophical and religious phases did not interest him.

  Now, how is this doctrine to be clearly examined? Mo Tzu said: For any doctrine some standard must be established. To expound a doctrine without a standard is like determining the directions of sunrise and sunset on a revolving potter’s wheel. In this way the distinction of right and wrong and benefit and harm cannot be clearly known. Therefore for any doctrine there must be the three standards.32 What are the three standards? Mo Tzu said: [1] There must be a basis or foundation. [2] There must be an examination. [3] And there must be practical application. [1] Where to find the basis? Find it in the [will of Heaven and the spirits and]33 the experiences of the ancient sage-kings above. [2] How is it to be examined? It is to be examined by inquiring into the actual experience of the eyes and ears of the people below. [3] How to apply it? Put34 it into law and governmental measures and see if they bring about benefits to the state and the people. These are called the three standards.

  Comment. A surprisingly scientific procedure: basis, examination, and application. A theory is to be verified and tested in actual experience. One cannot help sensing a strongly pragmatic flavor.

  [1] But some of the gentlemen of the world today believe that there is fate. Why not look into the experiences of the sage-kings? In ancient times the chaos created by King Chieh was taken over by King T’ang and replaced by order, and the chaos created by King Chou was taken over by King Wu and turned into order. The times were the same and the people were not different, and yet the empire was a chaos under Chieh and Chou but an orderly state under T’ang and Wu. How can it be said that there is fate?

  [2] But some of the gentlemen of the world today believe that there is fate. Why not look into the written records of past rulers? In the written records of past rulers what were issued to the whole country and distributed among the people were the laws. Did any of them say that blessings cannot be invoked and calamities cannot be averted, or that reverence does no good and cruelty does no harm? What were employed to settle litigations and mete out punishment were the laws. Did any of them say that blessings cannot be invoked and calamities cannot be averted, or that reverence does no good and cruelty does no harm? What were used to organize armies and order soldiers were the declarations. Did any of them say that blessings cannot be invoked and calamities cannot be averted, or that reverence does no good and cruelty does no harm? Mo Tzu said: I have not enumerated all35 the records. The good records of the world are innumerable. Generally speaking, they are the three types.36 Try as we may, we cannot find there the doctrine of those who believe in fate. Should the doctrine not be abandoned?

  [3] To adopt the doctrine of those who believe in fate is to upset righteousness in the world. To upset righteousness in the world is to establish fate. This means sorrow for the people. And to be delighted in people’s sorrow is to destroy them. Now, why do we want men of righteousness in the government? The answer is that when men of righteousness are in the government the world will be in order, the Lord on High, mountains and rivers, and spiritual beings will be sacrificed to by their proper sacrifices, and the people will receive great benefits from them. How do we know? Mo Tzu said: In ancient times T’ang was conferred a fief at Po. Making allowance for the irregular boundary lines, his territory was one hundred li37 in width and length. He and his people loved one another universally and benefited one another mutually. They shared the wealth when there was abundance. He led his people to honor Heaven and serve spiritual beings above. Consequently Heaven and spiritual beings enriched them, the feudal lords befriended them, the people loved them, and the worthy scholars came to them. Within a generation he became king of the empire and leader38 of the feudal lords.

  In ancient times King Wen was conferred a fief at the Chou district at the foot of Ch’i Mountain. Making allowance for the irregular boundary lines, his territory was one hundred li in width and length. He and his people loved one another universally and benefited one another mutually. Therefore those near him were contented with his government and those far away came to the fold of his virtue. Those who heard of King Wen all rose up and rushed to him. The weak, the unworthy, and the paralyzed remained where they were and expressed their desires, saying, “Why is King Wen’s land not extended to include us? Wouldn’t we then enjoy the same benefits as the subjects of King Wen?” Therefore Heaven and spiritual beings enriched them, the feudal lords befriended them, the people loved them, and the worthy scholars came to them. Within a generation he became king of the empire and leader of the feudal lords. I have said, when men of righteousness are in the government, the world will be in order, the Lord on High, mountains and rivers, and spiritual beings will be sacrificed to by their proper sacrificers, and the people will receive great benefits from them. From these ancient experiences I know what I said is true.

  Therefore ancient sage-kings propagated laws and issued edicts, and offered rewards and punishments to encourage virtue [and check wickedness].39 Consequently, people showed filial piety and deep love to their parents at home and respect to their elders in the community. They followed a standard in their conduct, observed discipline in their movements, and maintained the distinction between men and women. When they were ordered to manage official treasuries, they would not steal. When they were ordered to defend a city, they would not desert or rebel. When their ruler met with death, they sacrificed their own lives. When their ruler fled, they followed him. This is what the superior rewarded and the common people praised. But those who believe in fate say, “Whoever is rewarded by the superior is of course rewarded by fate. It is not because of virtue that he is rewarded. Whoever is punished is of course punished by fate. It is not because of his cruelty that he
is punished.” In consequence people do not show filial piety and deep love to their parents at home or respect to their elders in the community. They do not follow any standard in their conduct, observe discipline in their movements, or maintain the distinction between men and women. Therefore when they manage the official treasuries, they would steal. When they defend a city, they would desert or rebel. When their ruler meets with death, they would not sacrifice their lives. When their ruler flees, they would not follow him. This is what the superior will punish and the common people will condemn. But those who believe in fate say, “Whoever is punished by the superior is of course punished by fate. It is not because of his cruelty that he is punished. Whoever is rewarded by the superior is of course rewarded by fate. It is not because of his virtue that he is rewarded.” As a ruler he who holds this doctrine will not be righteous. As a minister he will not be loyal. As a father he will not be deeply loving. As a son he will not be filial. As an elder brother he will not be brotherly. And as a younger brother he will not be respectful. The unreasoning adherence to this doctrine is the source of evil ideas and the way of the wicked man.

  How do we know that fatalism is the way of the wicked man? Poor people of ancient times were greedy in drinking and eating but lazy in their work. Therefore their resources for food and clothing were inadequate, and the troubles of hunger and cold were approaching. They did not know enough to say, “We are weak and unworthy. We did not work hard.” But they would say, “It is originally our fate that we are poor.” The wicked kings of ancient times did not check the indulgence of their ears and eyes and the depravity of their minds. They did not obey their ancestors and consequently they lost their countries and ruined their states. They did not know to say, “We are weak and unworthy. Our government has not been good.” But they would say, “It is originally our fate that we lost them.” The “Announcement of Chung-hui” says, “I have heard that the man of the Hsia (King Chieh) issued orders to the world and falsely claimed them to be the Mandate of Heaven (T‘ienming). The Lord on High was for this reason displeased and [ordered King T’ang] to destroy his armies.”40 This tells how King T’ang showed Chieh’s belief in fate to be wrong. The “Great Oath” says, “King Chou abides squatting on the floor, not serving the Lord on High or spiritual beings. He neglected his ancestors and did not sacrifice to them. Thereupon he said, T [have] the people and I have the mandate (fate).’ He neglected his duty.41 Heaven also cast him away and withdrew its protection.42 This tells how King Wu (who removed King Chou) showed Chou’s belief in fate to be wrong.

  If the doctrine of the fatalist is put into practice, the ruler above would not attend to government, and people below would not attend to their work. If the ruler does not attend to government, then law and government will be disorderly. If the people do not attend to their work, wealth and resources will not be adequate. Then on the higher level there will not be the supply of pastry and wine to offer in sacrifice to the Lord on High and spiritual beings, and on the lower level there will be nothing to satisfy and comfort the worthy scholars of the world. Externally, there will be nothing to entertain the feudal lords as guests, and internally, there will be nothing to feed the hungry, clothe the cold, support the aged and protect the weak. Therefore on the higher level fatalism is not beneficial to Heaven, on the middle level it is not beneficial to spiritual beings, and on the lower level it is not beneficial to men. The unreasoning adherence to this doctrine is the source of evil ideas and the way of the wicked man. Therefore Mo Tzu said: If the gentlemen of the world today really want the world to be rich and dislike it to be poor, and want the world to be orderly and dislike it to be chaotic, they must condemn the doctrine of fatalism. It is a great harm to the world, (sptk, 9:la-6b.)

  D. Additional Selections

  1. Utilitarianism

  Mo Tzu said: Any word or action that is beneficial to Heaven, spiritual beings, and the people is to be undertaken. Any word or action that is harmful to Heaven, spiritual beings, and the people is to be rejected. Any word or action that is in accord with the sage-kings of the Three Dynasties, sage-emperors Yao and Shun,43 and sage-kings Yü, T’ang, Wen, and Wu is to be undertaken. Any word or action that is in accord with the wicked kings of the Three Dynasties, Chieh, Chou, Yu, and Li, is to be rejected.

  Mo Tzu said: Any doctrine that can elevate conduct should be perpetuated. Any doctrine that cannot elevate conduct should not be perpetuated. To perpetuate those doctrines that cannot elevate conduct is a waste of speech, (ch. 47, sptk, 12:2b-3a.)

  When a sage rules a state, the benefits of that state may be doubled. When he extends his rule to the empire, those of the empire may be doubled. This twofold increase is not the result of appropriating land from outside, but that of doing away with useless expenditure in the state. In issuing orders, promoting any undertaking, employing the people, or expending wealth, the sage-kings in their administration never do anything that is not useful. Therefore resources are not wasted and the people can44 be free from being overworked, and many benefits will be promoted. . . .

  In ancient times the sage-kings formulated laws which said, “No man of twenty should dare to remain single, no girl of fifteen should dare to be without her master.” This was the law of sage-kings. Now that the sage-kings have passed away, the people do what they want. Those who like to have a family early sometimes marry at twenty. Those who like to have a family later sometimes marry at forty. When the late marriages are made up by the early marriages, the average is still later by ten years than the legal age decreed by the sage-kings. Suppose there is one birth in three full years, then there would be two or three children born [by the time men now marry]. This does not only show that if people are caused to marry early, the population can be doubled.

  But that is not all. Rulers of today reduce the population in more ways than one. They overwork the people in employing them, and impose heavy burdens by levying taxes. People’s resources become insufficient and innumerable people die of hunger and cold. Moreover, great officials mobilize armies to invade neighboring states, for a whole year in long expeditions or for a few months in quicker ones. For a long time, husbands and wives would not see each other. These are ways in which population is reduced. . . . (ch. 20, sptk, 6:1a-2b.)

  2. The Condemnation of War

  Now does it mean that to annex a state and destroy an army, injure and oppress the people, and throw the heritages of sages into confusion will benefit Heaven? But to recruit the people of Heaven to attack the cities of Heaven is to murder the people of Heaven, smash altars, demolish shrines, and kill sacrificial animals. In this way, on the higher level no benefit to Heaven can be attained. Does it mean to benefit spiritual beings? But people of Heaven are murdered and spiritual beings are denied their patron sacrifices. The spirits of past rulers are neglected. The multitude are injured and oppressed and the people are scattered. Thus on the middle level no benefit to spiritual beings can be attained. Does it mean to benefit the people? The benefit to the people from killing the people of Heaven is slight45 indeed! And calculate its cost! This is the root of destruction of life. It exhausts the people to an immeasurable degree. Thus on the lower level no benefit to the people can be attained, (ch. 19, sptk, 5:9a-9b.)

  3. The Condemnation of Wasteful Musical Activities

  The reason why Mo Tzu condemns music is not because the sounds of the big bells, resounding drums, harps, and pipes are not delightful. . . . But set against the past it is not in accord with the deeds of the sage-kings and checked with the present it is not in accord with the benefits of the people. Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong. . . ,

  Mo Tzu said: To levy heavy taxes on the people in order to produce the sounds of big bells, resounding drums, harps, and pipes does not help the promotion of benefits and the removal of harms in the world. Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong. . . . To have men engage in music is to waste their time for ploughing and planting. To have women engage in music is to waste thei
r effort for weaving and spinning. Now, kings, dukes, and great officials engage in music. To strike musical instruments to produce music, they loot the people’s resources for food and clothing to such an extent! Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong.

  Now, the sounds of big bells, resounding drums, harps, and pipes are produced. It is no pleasure for the great lords to play and listen alone. They must enjoy it either with the common people or with the rulers. If with the rulers, it will cause them to neglect their attention to government. If with the common people, it will cause them to neglect their work. Now kings, dukes, and great officials engage in music. To strike musical instruments they loot the people’s resources for food and clothing to such an extent! Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong.

  Formerly Duke K’ang46 of Ch’i promoted music and dance. The dancers47 were not to wear coarse garments or eat coarse food. They said that if food was not good, their appearance and complexion would not be good to look at, and if clothing was not beautiful the body and its movements would not be good to observe. Therefore their food had to consist of grain and meat and their clothing of beautiful patterns and embroidery. This is not to produce material for food and clothing but to live on others all the time. Therefore Mo Tzu said: Now, kings, dukes, and great officials engage in music. To strike musical instruments they loot the people’s resources for food and clothing to such an extent! Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong. . . .

  Now, kings, dukes, and great officials love music and listen to it, they certainly cannot go to court early and retire late in order to listen to litigations and administer the government. Therefore the country is in chaos and the state in danger. . . . Therefore Mo Tzu said: To engage in music is wrong, (ch. 32, sptk, 8:14a-18b)