A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  As a man, he was much respected. For forty years he lived in Lo-yang in poverty. He was offered two minor offices but he declined. When he approached in a small cart, all people, whether adults or children, welcomed him with warm smiles.4 He wrote a number of works, but the most important is the Huang-chi ching-shih shu (Supreme Principles Governing the World).5

  Following the list of its major topics and references are selections from it.

  Cosmology: 1, 10-13, 21, 23

  Form: 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 26

  History and Time: 5-7, 22

  Man: 2, 3, 14, 15. 24

  Mind and Sincerity: 27, 30

  Number: 9, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 26

  Principle, Nature, and Destiny: 3, 8, 16, 20, 23, 25, 27, 31

  Spirit: 13, 18, 19, 24, 26, 29

  Viewing things as things: 8, 24, 28, 29

  Yin yang and Great Ultimate: 1, 10-12, 15, 24-27

  SUPREME PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE WORLD

  1. Heaven is born of activity and Earth is bom of tranquillity. The interaction of activity and tranquillity gives full development to the Way of Heaven and Earth. At the first appearance of activity, yang is produced. As activity reaches its limit, yin is produced. The interaction of yin and yang gives full development to the functions of Heaven. At the first appearance of tranquillity, the element of weakness is produced. When weakness reaches its limit, the element of strength is produced. The interaction of these two elements gives full development to the functions of Earth. Greater activity is called major yang, while greater tranquillity is called major yin. Lesser activity is called minor yang, while lesser tranquillity is called minor yin. Major yang constitutes the sun; major yin, the moon; lesser yang, the stars; and lesser yin, the zodiacal spaces. The interaction of the sun, moon, stars, and zodiacal spaces gives full development to the substance of Heaven. Greater tranquillity is called major weakness, while lesser tranquillity is called minor weakness. Greater activity is called major strength, while lesser activity is called minor strength. Lesser weakness constitutes water; major strength, fire; lesser weakness, earth; and lesser strength, stone. The interaction of water, fire, soil, and stone gives full development to substance of Earth.

  The sun constitutes heat, the moon constitutes cold, the stars constitute daylight, and the zodiacal spaces constitute the night. The interaction of heat, cold, daylight, and night gives full development to the transformations of Heaven. Water constitutes rain, fire constitutes wind, earth constitutes dew, and stone constitutes thunder. The interaction of rain, wind, dew, and thunder gives full development to the changes of Earth. The transformations of heat result in the dormant nature of things; those of cold, their manifested nature; those of daylight, the physical forms of things; and those of night, their substance. The inter action of the dormant nature, manifested nature, physical form, and substance of things gives full development to the external influence on plants and animals. Rain affects animals; wind, birds; dew, grass; and thunder, plants. The interaction of animals, birds, grass, and plants gives full development to the response of animals and plants to external influence. (5:1b-2b)

  2. Man is the most intelligent of all things because his eyes can perceive the colors of all things, his ears can perceive the sounds of all things, his nose can perceive the smell of all things, and his tongue can perceive the tastes of all things. Color, sound, smell, and taste are the substance of things and the four senses are the functions of all men. Substance has no definite function—its function is to transform itself. Function has no definite substance—its substance is change itself. In the interaction of substance and function, the principles of man and things are complete. (5:5a)

  3. It is said in the Book of Changes, “Investigate principle (li) to the utmost and fully develop nature, until destiny is fulfilled.”6 By principle is meant the principle inherent in things. By nature is meant nature endowed by Heaven (T’ien, Nature). And by destiny is meant to abide in principle and one’s nature. How else can we abide in principle and our nature except through the Way?

  From this we know that the Way is the basis of Heaven and Earth, and that Heaven and Earth are the basis of all things. Viewed from Heaven and Earth, the myriad things are the myriad things (that is, individual entities). When Heaven and Earth are viewed from the Way, then they themselves are also the myriad things. The principle of the Way finds its full development in Heaven; the principle of Heaven, in Earth; the principle of Earth, in the myriad things; and that of the myriad things, in man. One who knows how the principles of Heaven, Earth, and all things find their full development in man can give full development to his people. (5:7a)

  4. With truth, virtue, work, and effort, the august sovereigns transformed the people, the emperors educated the people, the kings encouraged the people, and the despots led them. (5:14a)

  5. The past and the present in the universe is comparable to morning and evening. When the present is viewed from the past, it is called the present, but when viewed from posterity, it will become the past. When the past is viewed from the present, it is called the past, but when viewed from the past itself, it would be its present. Thus neither the present nor the past is necessarily the present or the past as such. The distinction is entirely due to our subjective points of view. People generations ago and people generations to come all have this subjective viewpoint. (5:14b)

  6. Therefore from the times of old, in the administration of their empires, rulers have had four kinds of Mandates of Heaven, namely, correct mandate (given by Heaven), accepted mandate (given by man), modified mandate (such as revolution), and substituted mandate (such as a minister acting for a ruler).7 Correct mandate is that which is completely followed. Accepted mandate is that which is followed with certain changes. Modified mandate is mostly changed but partly followed. And substituted mandate is that which is changed completely. That which is followed completely is augmented further and further. That which is followed with certain changes is augmented with some diminution. That which is mostly changed but partly followed is diminished with some augmentation. That which is changed completely is diminished further and further. That which is changed completely is work meant for one generation. That which is mostly changed but partly followed is work meant for ten generations. That which is mostly followed but partly changed is work meant for a hundred generations. That which is followed completely is work meant for a thousand generations. That which follows what ought to be followed and changes what ought to be changed is work meant for countless generations. Work meant for one generation, is this not the way of the Five Despots?8 Work meant for ten generations, is this not the way of the Three Kings?9 Work meant for a hundred generations, is this not the way of the Five Emperors?10 Work meant for a thousand generations, is this not the way of the Three August Sovereigns?11 Work meant for countless generations, is this not the way of Confucius? Thus we know that the despots, kings, emperors, and sovereigns had what were called mandates for a limited number of generations. But the mandate of Confucius transcends generations. (5:15 a-b)

  7. The period of the Three August Sovereigns [when cultural institutions were quietly formed] was the spring of history; that of the Five Emperors [when they grew], the summer; that of the Three Kings [when they matured], the autumn; and that of the Five Despots [when they were destroyed], the winter.12 As to the Seven States,13 they were the tail end of winter. (6:15a)

  Comment. Shao was one of the few Chinese philosophers who tried to formulate a metaphysical theory of history. Like most others, he could not get away from the concept of cycles. By combining the idea of cycles with his own theory of numbers, he viewed history as an infinite series of cycles. Starting with the traditional unit of 30 years for a generation, he held that a revolution consists of 12 generations (like a day with 12 periods), or 360 years, that an epoch consists of 30 revolutions (like a month with 30 days), or 10,800 years, and that a cycle consists of 12 epochs (again like 12 months in a year), or 129,600 years. The first three epochs, accordi
ng to him, correspond to the first three months of the year or the first three periods of the day in which yang begins to rise and things grow gradually. Thus the first three epochs are the periods of the birth of heaven, earth, and man, successively. By the end of the sixth epoch (64,800 years), or June, yang reaches its height. This is the time of sage-emperors Yao and Shun. In his own time (75,600 years), or the eleventh century, yang begins to decline and yin rises. Eventually, after 129,600 years, the whole cycle would end and another cycle would begin all over.

  The whole scheme is as arbitrary as it is superficial. The idea that one world succeeds another is evidently Buddhist-influenced, for Buddhism conceives existence in terms of an infinite series of worlds, whereas the Chinese idea of cycles means rise and fall within the history of this world.

  8. By viewing things is not meant viewing them with one’s physical eyes but with one’s mind. Nay, not with one’s mind but with the principle inherent in things. There is nothing in the universe without principle, nature, and destiny. These can be known only when principle has been investigated to the utmost, when nature is completely developed, and when destiny is fulfilled. The knowledge of these three is true knowledge. Even the sage cannot go beyond it. Whoever goes beyond it cannot be called a sage.

  A mirror reflects because it does not obscure the physical form of things. But water (with its purity) does even better because it reveals the universal character of the physical form of things as they really are. And the sage does still better because he reflects the universal character of the feelings of all things. The sage can do so because he views things as things view themselves; that is, not subjectively but from the viewpoint of things. Since he is able to do this, how can there be anything between him and things? (6:26a-b)

  Comment. Shao Yung’s doctrine of viewing things from the standpoint of principle has received particular emphasis by Neo-Confucianists not so much for its merit as to offset his reputation as one who could foretell future events. He has not been described as a Taoist magician or diviner but he was very popular as a prophet. Wang Chih (b. 1685) thinks that Shao Yung purposely emphasized viewing things from the standpoint of principle in order to correct any wrong impression of him.14 Huang Po-chia (fl. 1695) took care to point out that Shao’s prophecies were results of his insight into the principle of things and not occultism.15 But Chu Hsi insisted that although Shao Yung saw principle, he did not pay enough attention to it.16 The whole effort of later Neo-Confucianists has been to minimize any element of occultism in Shao Yung’s philosophy. Such is the rationalism of Neo-Confucianist thought.

  9. The numbers of Heaven are five (1, 3, 5, 7, 9). The numbers of Earth are also five (2, 4, 6, 8, 10). Together they form the ten numbers in all. Heaven differentiates from 1 (Great Ultimate) to 4 (the Four Forms of greater and lesser yin and yang). Earth also differentiates from 1 to 4 (the Four Forms of greater and lesser strength and weakness). The four are physical, but the one is not. This is the ultimate distinction of being and non-being. The substance of Heaven numbers 4 (Four Forms), but its function numbers only 3 (minus greater yin). The same is true of Earth (minus greater strength).17 (7A:1a)

  10. Yang is superior and spiritually powerful. Being superior, it can control the external world. Being spiritually powerful, it can preserve its unlimited efficiency. For this reason the Way creates heaven and earth and all things without showing itself. All these are patterned after the Way. Yang is the function of the Way, while yin is its substance. Yin and yang operate on each other. When yang is the function, yin becomes superior. When yin is the function, yang becomes superior. (7A:16a)

  11. Yang cannot exist by itself; it can exist only when it is supported by yin. Hence yin is the foundation of yang. Similarly, yin cannot alone manifest itself; it can manifest itself only when accompanied by yang. Hence yang is the expression of yin. Yang controls the origination and enjoys the completion [of things] while yin follows the way [yang produces] and completes the work of yang. (7A: 17a)

  12. As the Great Ultimate becomes differentiated, the Two Modes (yin and yang) appear. Yang descends and interacts with yin, and yin rises to interact with yang, and consequently the Four Forms (major and minor yin and yang) are constituted. Yin and yang interact and generate the Four Forms of Heaven: the element of weakness and the element of strength interact and generate the Four Forms of Earth; and consequently the Eight Elements (heaven, water, fire, thunder, wind, water in motion, mountain, and earth) are completed. The Eight Elements intermingle and generate the myriad things. Therefore the one is differentiated into the two, two into four, four into eight, eight into sixteen, sixteen into thirty-two, and thirty-two into sixty-four. Thus it is said (in the Book of Changes) that “they are distinguished as yin and yang and the weak and the strong are employed in succession. Thus in the system of Change there are six positions and the pattern is complete.”18 Ten is divided to become 100, 1,000, and 10,000. This is similar to the fact that the root engenders the trunk; the trunk, branches; and the branches, leaves. The greater the division, the smaller the result, and the finer the division, the more complex. Taken as a unit, it is one. Taken as diffused development, it is the many. Hence the hexagrams ch’ien (Heaven) divides, k’un (Earth) unites; chen (activity) augments, and sun (bending) diminishes. Augmentation leads to division, division leads to diminution, and diminution leads to closing. (7A:24b)

  13. Material force is one. It is produced by ch’ien (the Principle of Heaven). Spirit is also one. Through material force it changes and transforms, and operates freely in the realm of existence and non existence as well as in the realm of life and death. It has no spatial restrictions and is unfathomable. (7B:2b)

  14. The origin of Heaven and Earth is based on the principle of the Mean (the central principle). Thus ch’ien and k’un never deviate from this central principle of existence although they are engaged in incessant transformation. Man is central in the universe, and the mind is central in man. The sun is most glorious and the moon is full when they are in the central position. Therefore, the superior man highly values the principle of centrality. (7B:4a)

  15. In the human being, ch’ien constitutes the male element while k’un constitutes the female element. On the infra-human, ch’ien constitutes yin while k’un constitutes yang. (7B:7a)

  16. Forms come from physical shapes, and number comes from substance. Names come from language, while concepts come from function. All numbers in the world are derived from principle. If principle is violated, they will be degenerated into divination techniques. Ordinary people associate numbers with divination techniques and therefore they are not associated with principle. (7B:19b)

  Comment. Insofar as Shao Yung’s number is calculable and is not left to the whims of spirits, his system is sharply different from occultism. But a numerical interpretation of things like his is too rigid and too mechanical to leave any room for any human effort. There is no doubt that this mechanism was one factor for the unpopularity of his philosophy among Neo-Confucianists. Ch’eng I associated with him for thirty years and discussed with him many subjects but never touched on the subject of numbers.19

  17. Internal forms and numbers are what exist naturally and cannot be changed. The rest is all external forms and numbers.

  What exists naturally is due to Heaven. Only the sage can investigate it. Man follows it as the model. But if man can act or not act [as principle dictates]20 even though he is a man, he would be [equivalent to] Heaven.

  Change has internal forms and external forms. The former are principles and numbers while the latter refer to individual, concrete, unchanging objects. (7B:20a-b)

  18. Spirit is the master of Change. It therefore has no spatial restriction. Change is the function of spirit. Therefore it has no physical form. “Spirit has no spatial restriction and Change has no physical form.”21 If spirit is impeded spatially, it would not be able to effect transformation and would cease to be spirit. If Change had a definite, physical form, it would not be able to penetrate
things and would cease to be Change. Although Change seems to have physical form, it is but a symbol by which physical form is manifested. Actually Change itself has no physical form. (7B:21a-b)

  19. By its nature, the Great Ultimate is unmoved. When it is aroused, it becomes spirit. Spirit leads to number. Number leads to form. Form leads to concrete things. Concrete things undergo infinite transformations, but underlying them is spirit to which they must be resolved. (7B:23b)

  20. Forms and numbers in the universe can be calculated, but their wonderful operations cannot be fathomed. The universe can be fully investigated through principles but not through physical forms. How can it be fully investigated through external observation? (8A:16b)

  21. The numerical principle of Change penetrates the universe from its beginning to end. Someone asked, “Does the universe have a beginning and an end?”

  Answer: “Since it is involved in the process of augmentation and diminution, how can it be without a beginning and an end? Although heaven and earth are vast, they are also physical forms and concrete things. As such they are two individual entities.” (8A:31b)

  22. The law (of history) began with Fu-hsi, completed in Emperor Yao, modified in the period of the Three Kings, reached its limit in the period of the Five Despots, and disappeared in the time of Ch’in (221–206 b.c.). This is the track of the cycle of peace and chaos throughout the ten thousand generations. (8A:32a)

  23. Everything follows the evolutionary order of the Great Ultimate, the Two Modes (of yin and yang), the Four Forms, and the Eight Elements. Everything also possesses the two forms of time, the past and the present. As form is externalized in physical form, the result is physical substance, for substance is derived from physical form. As form contains the dormant nature of things, the result is their manifested nature, for manifested nature is the expression of dormant nature. In fire, the nature is fundamental, while its physical substance is secondary, whereas in water the opposite is true. Each of the Eight Elements has its own nature and physical substance, but none can exist outside of the operation of ch’ien and k’un. Thus all things receive their nature from Heaven but the nature of each is peculiar to it. In man it becomes human nature. In animals and plants it becomes the nature of animals and plants. (8B:9b)