A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  24. Our nature views things as they are, but our feelings cause us to see things subjectively and egotistically. Our nature is impartial and enlightened, but our feelings are partial and deceived. When the material endowment in man is characterized by equilibrium and harmony, the elements of strength and weakness in him will be balanced. If yang predominates, he will be off balance toward strength, and if yin predominates, he will be off balance toward weakness. As knowledge directed toward the nature of man increases, the knowledge directed toward things will decrease.

  Man occupies the most honored position in the scheme of things because he combines in him the principles of all species. If he honors his own position and enhances his honor, he can make all species serve him.

  The nature of all things is complete in the human species.

  The spirit of man is the same as the spirit of Heaven and Earth. Therefore, when one deceives himself, he is deceiving Heaven and Earth. Let him beware!

  Spirit is nowhere and yet everywhere. The perfect man can penetrate the minds of others because he is based on the One. Spirit is perforce called the One and the Way. It is best to call it spirit. (8B: 16a-17a)

  25. Without physical substance, the nature (of man and things) cannot be complete. Without nature, physical substance cannot be produced. The yang has the yin as its physical substance and the yin has the yang as its nature. Nature is active but physical substance is tranquil. In heaven, yang is active while yin is tranquil, whereas in earth yang is tranquil while yin is active. When nature is given physical substance, it becomes tranquil. As physical substance follows nature, it becomes active. Hence yang is at ease with itself but yin is fast moving without control. (8B:22a)

  26. The Great Ultimate is the One. It produces the two (yin and yang) without engaging in activity.22 The two (in their wonderful changes and transformations) constitute the spirit. Spirit engenders number, number engenders form, and form engenders concrete things. (8B:23a)

  Comment. In saying that the Great Ultimate produces without activity, Shao Yung is different from Chou Tun-i who said that the Great Ultimate generates yang through movement.23 Shao did not want to differentiate activity and tranquillity or yin and yang sharply as in the case of Chou. As Huang Yüeh-chou said in his commentary, the point is that spirit produces the two not as two separate entities but the two embraced in the One, namely, the Great Ultimate.24

  27. The mind is the Great Ultimate. The human mind should be as calm as still water. Being calm, it will be tranquil. Being tranquil, it will be enlightened.

  In the study of prior existence25 sincerity26 is basic. Perfect sincerity can penetrate all spirits. Without sincerity, the Way cannot be attained.

  Our nature comes from Heaven, but learning lies with man. Our nature develops from within, while learning enters into us from without. “It is due to our nature that enlightenment results from sincerity,”27 but it is due to learning that sincerity results from intelligence.

  The learning of a superior man aims precisely at enriching his personality. The rest, such as governing people and handling things, is all secondary.

  Without sincerity, one cannot investigate principle to the utmost.

  Sincerity is the controlling factor in one’s nature. It is beyond space and time.

  He who acts in accordance with the Principle of Nature will have the entire process of creation in his grip. When the Principle of Nature is achieved, not only his personality, but his mind also, are enriched. And not only his mind but his nature and destiny are enriched. To be in accord with principle is normal, but to deviate from principle is abnormal. (8B:25a-26a)

  28. When one can be happy or sad with things as though he were the things themselves, one’s feelings may be said to have been aroused and to have acted to a proper degree. (8B:26a)

  29. We can handle things as they are if we do not impose our ego on them. The sage gives things every benefit and forgets his own ego.

  To let the ego be unrestrained is to give rein to feelings; to give rein to feelings is to be beclouded; and to be beclouded is to be darkened. To follow the natural principles of things, on the other hand, is to grasp their nature; to grasp their nature is to be in possession of spiritual power; and to possess spiritual power is to achieve enlightenment. (8B:27b)

  30. When the mind retains its unity and is not divided, it can respond to all things. Thus the mind of the superior man is vacuous (absolutely pure and peaceful) and is not disturbed.

  The Way is in all events, whether great or little. They conform to the Way when they are contented with their state of being. They violate the Way when they are in discord with their state of being. (8B:29a)

  31. The principles governing Heaven (Nature) and man are found in all events, great or little. It is the duty of man to cultivate his person, but whether he enjoys good fortune or suffers from evil fortune is up to Heaven. The way to obey Heaven is to remain undisturbed whether one succeeds or fails, but one disobeys Heaven when he takes to a dangerous course and hopes for luck.28 It is the duty of man to seek, but whether he gets or not is up to Heaven. The way to obey Heaven is not to be disturbed whether he gets or not, but one violates the Principle of Nature if he tries to obtain by force. Calamity will fall on those who violate the Principle of Nature. (8B:31b)

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  CHANG TSAI’S PHILOSOPHY OF MATERIAL FORCE

  Like other Neo-Confucianists, Chang Tsai (Chang Heng-ch’ü, 1020-1077) drew his inspiration chiefly from the Book of Changes. But unlike Chou Tun-i (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073) according to whom evolution proceeds from the Great Ultimate through the two material forces (yin and yang) and the Five Agents (Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth) to the myriad things, and unlike Shao Yung (1011-1077) according to whom evolution proceeds from the Great Ultimate through the two material forces and other stages to concrete things, Chang Tsai identifies material force (ch’i) with the Great Ultimate itself. He discards both yin and yang and the Five Agents as generative forces. To him, yin and yang are merely two aspects of material force, and as such are basically one. As substance, before consolidation takes place, material force is the Great Vacuity. As function, in its activity and tranquillity, integration and disintegration, and so forth, it is the Great Harmony. But the Great Vacuity and the Great Harmony are the same as the Way (Tao), the One. As contraction and expansion, the two aspects of material force are kuei-shen, or negative and positive spiritual forces. Here Chang replaces the traditional theory of spiritual beings or spirits of deceased persons and things with a completely rationalistic and naturalistic interpretation, and establishes a doctrine from which later Neo-Confucianists have never deviated. Also, believing existence to be perpetual integration and disintegration, he strongly attacked Buddhist annihilation and Taoist non-being. In this process of perpetual integration and disintegration, certain fundamental laws of the universe follow. Evolution abides by definite principles and has a certain order. Nothing is isolated. And yet everything is distinct from others.

  The universe is one but its manifestations are many. This is a fundamental idea in Chang Tsai, an idea that exercised a tremendous influence over his contemporaries and later Neo-Confucianists. As applied to the way of life, this idea becomes the concept of Heaven and Earth as universal parents and love for all in the “Western Inscription.” This is one of the most celebrated essays in Neo-Confucian literature. Each human relation has its specific moral requirement, but love embraces them all. At the end, the man of love not only has affection for all men but identifies himself with Heaven and Earth. Here we have another fundamental idea of his, which has also exercised an extensive influence over his contemporaries and over later Neo-Confucianists.

  Chang was a native of Ch’ang-an in modern Shensi, four years junior to Chou Tun-i. In his youth he loved military craft. As he was not satisfied with Confucian learning, he turned to study Buddhism and Taoism for years but finally returned to Confucian Classics, especially the Book of Changes and the Doctrine o
f the Mean, which eventually formed the basis of his own philosophy. When he lectured on the Book of Changes in the capital, his students included the outstanding Neo-Confucian scholar and statesman, Ssu-ma Kuang (1019-1086), and his two nephews, Ch’eng Hao (Ch’eng Ming-tao, 1032-1085) and Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) who became his critics and central figures in the Neo-Confucian movement. In his political views, he was at odds with the reformer Wang An-shih (1021-1086), for he insisted on reviving ancient Confucian economic systems, including the “well-field” system in which a field was divided into nine squares with eight families each cultivating one square separately for its own support and one square jointly for governmental revenues. He retired from minor governmental positions to teach in his home and actually attempted to have other scholars join him to put the “well-field” system into practice.1

  Among Chang’s works, the most important are the short treatise Hsiming (Western Inscription) and the longer one, Cheng-meng (Correcting Youthful Ignorance). The first in its entirety and the two most important chapters of the second are translated below, plus a selection from Chang’s other works. A list of major topics and references is provided here for easy reference.

  Being and Non-being: 3, 4, 6, 7, 29, 63

  Buddhism and Taoism: 3, 4, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67

  Cosmology and Metaphysics: 5, 12, 13, 16, 17, 56-58

  Knowledge: 20, 25, 34, 47, 59

  Material force: 2-9, 16, 30, 36, 42, 43

  Mind: 9, 37, 59, 68

  Nature and Destiny: 3, 4, 9, 18, 25-33, 35, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 51-53, 55, 61, 63

  One and Many: 3, 12-14, 17-19

  Physical nature: 40-43, 50, 59, 66

  Principle: 3, 7, 22, 34, 35, 43, 48, 51, 54, 55, 61, 63, 65, 67

  Sincerity: 20-24, 54

  Spirit: 1, 8, 15, 16, 44

  Spiritual forces: 10, 11, 31, 56, 64

  Vacuity: 2-9, 16, 63

  Yin yang: 1-5, 10, 17, 18, 22, 31, 56

  A.--THE WESTERN INSCRIPTION2

  Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate place in their midst.

  Therefore that which fills the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as my nature.

  All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions.

  The great ruler (the emperor) is the eldest son of my parents (Heaven and Earth), and the great ministers are his stewards. Respect the aged—this is the way to treat them as elders should be treated. Show deep love toward the orphaned and the weak—this is the way to treat them as the young should be treated. The sage identifies his character with that of Heaven and Earth, and the worthy is the most outstanding man. Even those who are tired, infirm, crippled, or sick; those who have no brothers or children, wives or husbands, are all my brothers who are in distress and have no one to turn to.3

  When the time comes, to keep himself from harm—this is the care of a son. To rejoice in Heaven and to have no anxiety—this is filial piety at its purest.

  He who disobeys [the Principle of Nature] violates virtue. He who destroys humanity is a robber. He who promotes evil lacks [moral] capacity. But he who puts his moral nature into practice and brings his physical existence into complete fulfillment can match [Heaven and Earth].

  One who knows the principles of transformation will skillfully carry forward the undertakings [of Heaven and Earth], and one who penetrates spirit to the highest degree will skillfully carry out their will.4

  Do nothing shameful in the recesses of your own house5 and thus bring no dishonor to them. Preserve your mind and nourish your nature and thus (serve them) with untiring effort.

  The Great Yü hated pleasant wine but attended to the protection and support of his parents.6 Border Warden Ying brought up and educated the young and thus extended his love to his own kind.7

  Shun’s merit lay in delighting his parents with unceasing effort,8 and Shen-sheng’s reverence was demonstrated when he awaited punishment without making an attempt to escape.9

  Tsang Shen received his body from his parents and reverently kept it intact throughout life,10 while Po-ch’i vigorously obeyed his father’s command.11

  Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are meant for the enrichment of my life, while poverty, humble station, and sorrow are meant to help me to fulfillment.

  In life I follow and serve [Heaven and Earth]. In death I will be at peace. (1:1a-6b)

  Comment. Just as Chou Tun-i’s short essay on the diagram of the Great Ultimate has become the basis of Neo-Confucian metaphysics, so Chang’s “Western Inscription” has become the basis of Neo-Confucian ethics. Ch’eng I was not exaggerating when he said that there was nothing like it since Mencius.12 It is important because, as Ch’eng I said, it deals with the substance of humanity (jen).13 Its primary purpose, as Yang Shih (Yang Kuei-shan, 1053-1135) pointed out, was to urge students to seek yen.14

  The development of the concept of jen is a long and continuous one in the history of Confucianism. It progressed from Confucius’ doctrine of jen as the general virtue through jen as love in the Han times (206 b.c.–a.d. 220) to Han Yü’s “universal love.”15 So far Confucian jen has been largely confined to the mundane world. Chang, however, extended it to encompass the entire universe. There is no doubt that the idea reflects Buddhist influence, for the object of moral consciousness in Buddhism is the entire realm of existence. Yang Shih thinks that Chang’s doctrine comes from Mencius’ saying, “The superior man. . . loves all things,”16 but “things” in the quotation refers only to living beings whereas Chang extended jen to cover the whole universe. The outcome of this extension is the doctrine of “forming one body with the universe”—an all-important doctrine throughout Neo-Confucianism.

  The question whether this universal love is similar to that of Buddhism and Moism raises an important issue; for if it were, it would destroy the orthodox Confucian doctrine of love with distinctions.17 Yang Shih himself objected that the essay deals only with the substance of jen but not its function, but as Ch’eng I explained to him, it is precisely in harmonizing substance and function that the “Western Inscription” is of great significance to Confucian ethics. Underlying the essay, according to Ch’eng, is Chang’s epochshaking theory that “Principle is one but its manifestations are many.”18 The universal love, as Ch’en Ch’un (Ch’en Pei-hsi, 1153-1217) has observed, is not mere identification with all things, but the actual operation of principle which combines all as one.19 It is principle that love should be universal (as substance), but it is also principle that there should be special affection for parents (as function) because they are the root of one’s life. Thus the doctrine of universal love and that of the traditional Confucian doctrine of love with distinctions are harmonized. Yang Shih himself has said, “As we know, the principle is one, and that is why there is love. The functions are many, and that is why there is righteousness. . . . Since functions are different, the applications [of jen] cannot be without distinctions.”20 Or as Chu Hsi (1130-1200) put it:

  “There is nothing in the entire realm of creatures that does not regard Heaven as the father and Earth as the mother. This means that the principle is one. . . . Each regards his parents as his own parents and his son as his own son. This being the case, how can principle not be manifested as many?. . . When the intense affection for parents is extended to broaden the impartiality that knows no ego, and absolute sincerity in serving one’s parents leads to the understanding of the way to serve Heaven, then everywhere there is the operation that ‘the principle is one but its manifestations are many.’21 As Neo-Confucianists see it, there is a vast difference between Chang’s doctrine and that of the Moists, for the latter recognizes no distinctions and therefore fails to understand function.”22

  Actually the “Western Inscription” does not say anywhere that “the principle is one but its manifestations are many,” and only five or six of its sentences can be taken to imply it. But in the
view of Chu Hsi and others, the references to father, mother, and other human relations clearly point to differentiation. In any case, in the understanding of Neo-Confucianists, the “Western Inscription,” in thus preserving the harmony of substance and function of jen and putting it on the metaphysical basis, carries the doctrine of jen to a level higher than before. It also paves the way for the culmination of Neo-Confucian theories of jen in Chu Hsi.23

  B.--CORRECTING YOUTHFUL IGNORANCE24

  1. Great Harmony (ch. 1)

  1. The Great Harmony is called the Way (Tao, Moral Law). It embraces the nature which underlies all counter processes of floating and sinking, rising and falling, and motion and rest. It is the origin of the process of fusion and intermingling, of overcoming and being overcome, and of expansion and contraction. At the commencement, these processes are incipient, subtle, obscure, easy, and simple, but at the end they are extensive, great, strong, and firm. It is ch’ien (Heaven) that begins with the knowledge of Change, and k’un (Earth) that models after simplicity. That which is dispersed, differentiated, and capable of assuming form becomes material force (ch’i), 25 and that which is pure, penetrating, and not capable of assuming form becomes spirit. Unless the whole universe is in the process of fusion and intermingling like fleeting forces moving in all directions, it may not be called Great Harmony. When those who talk about the Way know this, then they really know the Way, and when those who study Change (or the Book of Changes) understand this, then they really understand Change. Otherwise, even though they possess the admirable talents of Duke Chou,26 their wisdom is not praiseworthy.