Possessed

by Bruce Hood

  37 Stenner, K. and Haidt, J. (2018), ‘Authoritarianism is not a momentary madness’. In C. R. Sunstein, ed., Can It Happen Here? New York: HarperCollins.

  38 https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2012/02/07/britains-nostalgic-pessimism.

  39 https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2016/01/08/fsafasf.

  40 Inglehart, R. F. and Norris, P. (2016), ‘Trump, Brexit, and the rise of Populism: Economic have-nots and cultural backlash (July 29, 2016)’. Harvard Kennedy School Working Paper No. RWP16-026, https://ssrn.com/abstract=2818659.

  41 Ibid.

  42 Olson, K. R. and Shaw, A. (2011), ‘“No fair, copycat!” What children’s response to plagiarism tells us about their understanding of ideas’, Developmental Science, 14, 431–9.

  43 Vivian, L., Shaw, A. and Olson, K. R. (2013), ‘Ideas versus labor: what do children value in artistic creation?’ Cognition, 127, 38–45.

  44 Shaw, A., Vivian, L. and Olson, K. R. (2012), ‘Children apply principles of physical ownership to ideas’, Cognitive Science, 36, 1383–403.

  45 https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliverchiang/2010/11/13/meet-the-man-who-just-made-a-cool-half-million-from-the-sale-of-virtual-property/#5cc281621cd3.

  46 Kramer, A. D. I., Guillory, J. E. and Hancock, J. T. (2014), ‘Experimental evidence of massive scale emotional contagion through social networks’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 8788–90.

  47 https://www.inc.com/melanie-curtin/was-your-facebook-data-stolen-by-cambridge-analytica-heres-how-to-tell.html.

  48 Rokka, J. and Alrodi, M. (2018), https://theconversation.com/cambridge-analyticas-secret-psychographic-tool-is-a-ghost-from-the-past-94143?fbclid=IwAR0yfeEo2an4Bpogh8d1b8F2yabbsD9y_9ShQKLezCntUPD1S_kGrT1JlAA.

  49 Packard, V. (1957), The Hidden Persuaders. New York: Pocket Books.

  50 Lilienfeld, S. O., et al. (2010), 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.

  51 Bentham, Jeremy (1838–1843), The Works of Jeremy Bentham, published under the Superintendence of his Executor, John Bowring. Edinburgh: William Tait, 11 vols. Vol. 1, http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/2009.

  52 Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T. and Dirks, K. T. (2003), ‘The state of psychological ownership: integrating and extending a century of research’, Review of General Psychology, 7, 84–107.

  2. NON-HUMANS POSSESS, BUT ONLY HUMANS CAN OWN

  1 Triplett, N. (1898), ‘The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition’, American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507–33.

  2 Clark, A. E. and Oswald, A. J. (1996), ‘Satisfaction and comparison income’, Journal of Public Economics, 61, 359–81.

  3 Smith, D. (2015), ‘Most people have no idea whether they are paid fairly’, Harvard Business Review, December issue, https://hbr.org/2015/10/most-people-have-no-idea-whether-theyre-paid-fairly.

  4 Mencken, H. L. (1949/1978), ‘Masculum et Feminam Creavit Eos’, in A Mencken chrestomathy. New York: Knopf, pp. 619–20.

  5 Neumark, D. and Postlewaite, A. (1998), ‘Relative income concerns and the rise in married women’s employment’, Journal of Public Economics, 70, 157–83.

  6 Hofmann, H. A. and Schildberger, K. (2001), ‘Assessment of strength and willingness to fight during aggressive encounters in crickets’, Animal Behaviour, 62, 337–48.

  7 Davies, N. B. (1978), ‘Territorial defence in the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria): the resident always wins’, Animal Behaviour, 26, 138–47.

  8 Lueck, D. (1995), ‘The rule of first possession and the design of the law’, Journal of Law and Economics, 38, 393–436.

  9 Harmand, S., et al. (2015), ‘3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya’, Nature, 521, 310–15.

  10 Mann, J. and Patterson, E. M. (2013), ‘Tool use by aquatic animals’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368 (1630), https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0424.

  11 https://anthropology.net/2007/06/04/82000-year-old-jewellery-found/.

  12 Brosnan, S. F. and Beran, M. J. (2009), ‘Trading behavior between conspecifics in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes’, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 123, 181–94.

  13 Kanngiesser, P., et al. (2011), ‘The limits of endowment effects in great apes (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus)’, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 125, 436–45.

  14 Radovcˇic´, D., et al. (2015), ‘Evidence for Neandertal jewelry: modified white-tailed eagle claws at Krapina’, PLoS ONE, 10 (3), e0119802, doi:10.1371/journal.

  15 Lewis-Williams, D. (2004), Mind in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art. London: Thames & Hudson.

  16 Gomes, C. M. and Boesch, C. (2009), ‘Wild chimpanzees exchange meat for sex on a long-term basis’, PLoS ONE, 4 (4), e5116, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005116.

  17 HSBC Report (2013), ‘The Future of Retirement: Life after Work’, https://investments.hsbc.co.uk/myplan/files/resources/130/future-of-retirement-global-report.pdf.

  18 https://www.pru.co.uk/press-centre/inheritance-plans/.

  19 https://www.legalandgeneral.com/retirement/retirement-news/2018/bank-of-mum-and-dad-report-2018.pdf.

  20 Trivers, R. L. and Willard, D. E. (1973), ‘Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring’, Science, 179, 90–92.

  21 Smith, M. S., Kish, B. J. and Crawford, C. B. (1987), ‘Inheritance of wealth as human kin investment’, Ethological Sociobiology, 8, 171–82.

  22 Song, S. (2018), ‘Spending patterns of Chinese parents on children’s backpacks support the Trivers–Willard hypothesis’, Evolution & Human Behavior, 39, 339–42.

  23 Judge, D. S. and Hrdy, S. B. (1992), ‘Allocation of accumulated resources among close kin: inheritance in Sacramento, California, 1890–1984’, Ethological Sociobiology, 13, 495–522.

  24 http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-07-02/cheating-wives-narrowed-infidelity-gap-over-two-decades.

  25 Walker, R. S., Flynn, M. V. and Hill, K. R. (2010), ‘Evolutionary history of partible paternity in lowland South America’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 19195–200.

  26 Michalski, R. L. and Shackelford, T. K. (2005), ‘Grandparental investment as a function of relational uncertainty and emotional closeness with parents’, Human Nature, 16, 293–305.

  27 Gray, P. B. and Brogdon, E. (2017), ‘Do step- and biological grandparents show differences in investment and emotional closeness with their grandchildren?’, Evolutionary Psychology, 15, 1–9.

  28 Gaulin, S. J. C., McBurney, D. H. and Brakeman-Wartell, S. L. (1997), ‘Matrilateral biases in the investment of aunts and uncles: a consequence and measure of paternity uncertainty’, Human Nature, 8, 139–51.

  29 Rousseau, J.-J. (1754/1984), A Discourse on Inequality. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

  30 Strassmann, J. E. and Queller, D. C. (2014), ‘Privatization and property in biology’, Animal Behaviour, 92, 305–11.

  31 Riedl, K., Jensen, K., Call, J. and Tomasello, M. (2012), ‘No third-party punishment in chimpanzees’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 14824–9.

  32 Rossano, F., Rakoczy, H. and Tomasello, M. (2011), ‘Young children’s understanding of violations of property rights’, Cognition, 121, 219–27.

  33 Slaughter, V. (2015), ‘Theory of mind in infants and young children: a review’, Australian Psychologist, 50, 169–72.

  34 Guala, F. (2012), ‘Reciprocity: weak or strong? What punishment experiments do (and do not) demonstrate’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 1–15.

  35 Lewis, H. M., et al. (2014), ‘High mobility explains demand sharing and enforced cooperation in egalitarian hunter-gatherers’, Nature Communications, 5, 5789.

  36 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGttmR2DTY8.

  37 Tilley, N., et al. (2015), ‘Do burglar alarms increase burglary risk? A counter-intuitive finding and possible explanations’, Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 17, 1–19.

  38 Fischer, P., et al. (2011), ‘T
he bystander-effect: a meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies’, Psychological Bulletin, 137, 517–37.

  39 Hardin, G. (1968), ‘The tragedy of the commons’, Science, 162, 1243–8.

  40 Lloyd, W. F. (1833/1968), Two Lectures on the Checks to Population. New York: Augustus M. Kelley.

  41 Crowther, T. W., et al. (2015), ‘Mapping tree density at a global scale’, Nature, 525, 201–5.

  42 Gowdy, J. (2011), ‘Hunter-gatherers and the mythology of the market’, https://libcom.org/history/hunter-gatherers-mythology-market-john-gowdy.

  43 Sahlins, M. (1972), Stone Age Economics. Chicago: Aldine Publishing.

  44 http://www.rewild.com/in-depth/leisure.html.

  3. ORIGINS OF OWNERSHIP

  1 http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2015/10/01/banksy-mural-detroit-michigan-auction/73135144/.

  2 https://www.corby.gov.uk/home/environmental-services/street-scene/enviro-crime/graffiti.

  3 http://www.bristolpost.co.uk/banksy-s-bristol-exhibition-brought-163-15-million-city/story-11271699-detail/story.html.

  4 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6575345.stm.

  5 http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/duchamp-fountain-t07573/text-summary.

  6 Naumann, Francis M. (2003), ‘Marcel Duchamp: money is no object. The art of defying the art market’, Art in America, April.

  7 Furby, L. (1980), ‘The origins and early development of possessive behavior’, Political Psychology, 2, 30–42.

  8 White, R. W. (1959), ‘Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence’, Psychological Review, 66, 297–333.

  9 Fernald, A. and O’Neill, D. K. (1993), ‘Peekaboo across cultures: how mothers and infants play with voices, faces and expressions’. In K. McDonald, ed., Parent–Child Play: Descriptions and Implications. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

  10 Seligman, M. E. P. (1975), Helplessness. San Francisco: Freeman.

  11 Goldstein, K. (1908), ‘Zur lehre von de motorischen’, Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie, 11, 169–87.

  12 Finkelstein, N. W., et al. (1978), ‘Social behavior of infants and toddlers in a day-care environment’, Developmental Psychology, 14, 257–62.

  13 Ibid.

  14 Hay, D. F. and Ross, H. S. (1982), ‘The social nature of early conflict’, Child Development, 53, 105–13.

  15 Dunn, J. and Munn, P. (1985), ‘Becoming a family member: family conflict and the development of social understanding in the second year’, Child Development, 56, 480–92.

  16 Mueller, E. and Brenner, J. (1977), ‘The origins of social skills and interaction among playgroup toddlers’, Child Development, 48, 854–61.

  17 Krebs, K. (1975), ‘Children and their pecking order’, New Society, 17, 127–8.

  18 Vandell, D. (1976), ‘Boy toddlers’ social interaction with mothers, fathers, and peers’. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University.

  19 Hay, D. F. and Ross, H. S. (1982), ‘The social nature of early conflict’, Child Development, 53, 105–13.

  20 Burford, H. C., et al. (1996), ‘Gender differences in preschoolers’ sharing behavior’, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 17–25.

  21 Whitehouse, A. J. O., et al. (2012), ‘Sex-specific associations between umbilical cord blood testosterone levels and language delay in early childhood’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 726–34.

  22 In 1994, Andrew De Vries, 28, from Aberdeen, was shot after he knocked on the back door of a house in Dallas, Texas, apparently seeking a taxi for himself and a Scottish colleague. The owner fired through the door. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/08/us/homeowner-shoots-tourist-by-mistake-in-texas-police-say.html.

  23 https://www.inverse.com/article/18683-pokemon-go-not-license-trespass-get-off-my-lawn.

  24 https://www.nps.gov/yell/planyourvisit/rules.htm.

  25 Blake, P. R. and Harris, P. L. (2011), ‘Early representations of ownership’. In H. Ross & O. Friedman, eds., Origins of Ownership of Property. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 132. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 39–51.

  26 Friedman, O. and Neary, K. R. (2008), ‘Determining who owns what: do children infer ownership from first possession?’, Cognition, 107, 829–49.

  27 Hay, D. F. (2006), ‘Yours and mine: toddlers’ talk about possessions with familiar peers’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 39–52.

  28 Nelson, K. (1976), ‘Some attributes of adjectives used by young children’, Cognition, 4, 13–30.

  29 Rodgon, M. M. and Rashman, S. E. (1976), ‘Expression of owner-owned relationships among holophrastic 14- and 32-month-old children’, Child Development, 47, 1219–22.

  30 Friedman, O., et al. (2011), ‘Ownership and object history’. In H. Ross & O. Friedman, eds., Origins of Ownership of Property. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 132. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 79–89.

  31 Preissler, M. A. and Bloom, P. (2008), ‘Two-year-olds use artist intention to understand drawings’, Cognition, 106, 512–18.

  32 Kanngiesser, P., Gjersoe, N. L and Hood, B. (2010), ‘The effect of creative labor on property-ownership transfer by preschool children and adults’, Psychological Science, 21, 1236–41.

  33 Kanngiesser, P., Itakura, S. and Hood, B. (2014), ‘The effect of labour across cultures: developmental evidence from Japan and the UK’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 32, 320–29.

  34 Kanngiesser, P. and Hood, B. (2014), ‘Not by labor alone: considerations for value influences use of the labor rule in ownership judgments’, Cognitive Science, 38, 353–66.

  35 https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2014-11-14/why-pay-15-million-for-a-white-canvas.

  36 https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7835931/Florida-heiress-leaves-3m-and-Miami-mansion-to-chihuahua.html.

  37 Noles, N. S., et al. (2012), ‘Children’s and adults’ intuitions about who can own things’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, 12, 265–86.

  38 Ibid.

  39 Martin, C. L. and Ruble, D. (2004), ‘Children’s search for gender cues: cognitive perspectives on gender development’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 67–70.

  40 Kahlenberg, S. M. and Wrangham, R. W. (2010), ‘Sex differences in chimpanzees’ use of sticks as play objects resemble those of children’, Current Biology, 20, 1067–8.

  41 Miller, C. F., et al. (2013), ‘Bringing the cognitive and social together: how gender detectives and gender enforcers shape children’s gender development’. In M. R. Banaji and S. A. Gelman, eds., Navigating the Social World: What Infants, Children, and Other Species Can Teach Us. New York: Oxford University Press.

  42 Malcolm, S., Defeyter, M. A. and Friedman, O. (2014), ‘Children and adults use gender and age stereotypes in ownership judgments’, Journal of Cognition and Development, 15, 123–35.

  43 Winnicott, D. W. (1953), ‘Transitional objects and transitional phenomena’, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 34, 89–97.

  44 Lehman, E. B., Arnold, B. E. and Reeves, S. L. (1995), ‘Attachment to blankets, teddy bears and other non-social objects: a child’s perspective’, Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 156, 443–59.

  45 Hong, K. M. and Townes, B. D. (1976), ‘Infants’ attachment to inanimate objects. A cross-cultural study’, Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 15, 49–61.

  46 Passman, R. H. (1987), ‘Attachments to inanimate objects: are children who have security blankets insecure?’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 825–30.

  47 Hood, B. M. and Bloom, P. (2008), ‘Children prefer certain individuals to perfect duplicates’, Cognition, 106, 455–62.

  48 Fortuna, K., et al. (2014), ‘Attachment to inanimate objects and early childcare: a twin study’, Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 486.

  49 Gjersoe, N. L, Hall, E. L. and Hood, B. (2015), ‘Children attribute mental lives to toys only when they are em
otionally attached to them’, Cognitive Development, 34, 28–38.

  50 Hood, B., et al. (2010), ‘Implicit voodoo: electrodermal activity reveals a susceptibility to sympathetic magic’, Journal of Culture & Cognition, 10, 391–9.

  51 Harlow, H. F., Dodsworth, R. O. and Harlow, M. K. (1965), ‘Total social isolation in monkeys’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 54, 90–97.

  4. IT’S ONLY FAIR

  1 Shorrocks, A., Davies, J. and Lluberas, R. (2015), ‘Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report’, Credit Suisse.

  2 Mishel, L. and Sabadish, N. (2013), ‘CEO Pay in 2012 was Extraordinarily High Relative to Typical Workers and Other High Earners’, Economic Policy Institute.

  3 Norton, M. I. and Ariely, D. (2011), ‘Building a better America – one wealth quintile at a time’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 1–9.

  4 Bechtel, M. M., Liesch, R. and Scheve, K. F. (2018), ‘Inequality and redistribution behavior in a give-or-take game’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 3611–16.

  5 Somerville, J., et al. (2013), ‘The development of fairness expectations and prosocial behavior in the second year of life’, Infancy, 18, 40–66.

  6 Olson, K. R. and Spelke, E. S. (2008), ‘Foundations of cooperation in young children’, Cognition, 108, 222–31.

  7 Shaw, A. and Olson, K. R. (2012), ‘Children discard a resource to avoid inequity’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141, 383–95.

  8 Shaw, A., DeScioli, P. and Olson, K. R. (2012), ‘Fairness versus favoritism in children’, Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 736–45.

  9 Starmans, C., Sheskin, M. and Bloom, P. (2017), ‘Why people prefer unequal societies’, Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 82, doi: 10.1038/s41562-017-0082.

  10 Baumard, N., Mascaro, O. and Chevallier, C. (2012), ‘Preschoolers are able to take merit into account when distributing goods’, Developmental Psychology, 48, 492–8.

  11 Norton, M. I. and Ariely, D. (2011), ‘Building a better America – one wealth quintile at a time’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 1–9.

  12 Norton, M. I. (2014), ‘Unequality: who gets what and why it matters’, Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 151–5.