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The Crusades and the Near East

Page 47

by Kostick, Conor


  A F T E R W O R D

  complacent about fresh Islamic advances in the Mediterranean world. Urban succeeded in this aim: it is too often forgotten both by Western historians and by Byzantinists that the victories of the First Crusade in Anatolia enabled the Comneni to recover Western Asia Minor, and that this in turn allowed Byzantium to remain an important power in the twelfth century.

  Two of the essays in this volume deal with the crusading movement and Byzantium. Western opinion was very divided about the response of the Byzantines to the crusade: some observers considered that although the Byzantines had derived considerable benefits from the First Crusade, they had failed to give it the wholehearted support which, as fellow Christians, they should have done; others were favourably impressed by the high civilisation and the military capacity and organisation of the Byzantine world. These different reactions are considered by Léan Ní Chléirigh, who demonstrates that these attitudes did not grow up during the twelfth century, but were to be found among Western European crusade chroniclers from the start.

  Chris Wright’s essay covers the whole span of Western–Byzantine relations from 1095 to 1453. This is a very carefully nuanced piece of work, considering the impact of the crusades on the ideology of the Byzantine state. The emperors, who had ruled in Constantinople in unbroken succession from Constantine the Great, claimed to be the sole divinely sanctioned secular power in the world. In theory all men should acknowledge their rule as vice-gerents of God in temporal affairs: if non-Christians failed to do so, that was a consequence of original sin which prevented them from understanding God’s design for the world; but Christians who failed to acknowledge the emperor’s unique authority showed a deliberate disregard of God’s will. Although the emperors never modified their claims, they were manifestly at variance with political reality after 1204, when Byzantine power gradually declined until the empire became a city-state with control over a few outposts, such as Mistra. But Chris Wright argues that the crusade movement caused Byzantium to be marginalised right from the start, by having as its goal the liberation of Jerusalem, an objective which the Byzantines did not share, and that the Fourth Crusade exacerbated but did not cause that marginalisation. This is an analysis that deserves very serious consideration.

  Byzantium, the West and Islamic society all shared a common intellectual heritage, deriving from classical Greece. Although it is undoubtedly true that the Byzantine and Islamic civilisations had been far more advanced than that of Western Christendom in the centuries before 1100, that was no longer the case in the age of the crusades, which coincided with the complex movement that is often called the twelfth-century Renaissance. Western civilisation began to compete on equal terms with those of its Byzantine and Islamic neighbours and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become more dynamic than either of them. Some late nineteenth-century scholars who wrote about the age of the crusades, such as Stanley Lane-Poole, were so impressed by the civilisation of medieval Islam that they tended automatically to disparage Western intellectual achievements, and their legacy still underlies some common assumptions about 261

  B E R N A R D H A M I L T O N

  certain aspects of society in the crusader states. It is a widely held opinion, for example, that Islamic medicine was superior to Frankish medical knowledge in twelfth-century Syria. Susan B. Edgington, following in the pioneering footsteps of Piers Mitchell, has critically examined the evidence for this assumption in her essay. She rightly draws attention to the fact that the revival of medical studies in Western Europe antedates the crusades by almost a generation, through the work of Constantine the African at Monte Cassino from 1077, whose translations were used in the schools of Salerno. She also shows that from the earliest years of Frankish settlement in the Levant, Western doctors were not necessarily inferior in knowledge and clinical treatment to their Islamic colleagues. ‘A study of the crusading armies suggests that they brought with them surgeons who were well up to the demands of battlefield surgery,’ she comments.

  One of the most complex and controversial areas of study in the society of the Latin East is that of ecclesiastical art and architecture. How far was the Gothic style which came to dominate Western ecclesiastical architecture in the central Middle Ages influenced by developments which originated in the crusader states?

  How far was Frankish architecture and sculpture in the Levant the work of indigenous craftsmen trained in the Western tradition? How far was it dependent on skilled masons and sculptors from Western Europe? Jürgen Krüger considers issues of this kind in his essay, with special reference to the church of the Holy Sepulchre, the spiritual focus of the crusading movement, which had a wide influence throughout the whole of Latin Christendom during the twelfth century.

  The crusading movement was an expression of the unity of the Latin West, a unity which, pace the Western Empire of the Salians and the Hohenstaufen, had no political identity. Yet the crusading participants were unable to set aside their local cultural characteristics completely. This was particularly true of the linguistic divisions which existed in crusader armies. There is no doubt that this could give rise to practical problems, as the Provençal contingent found on the First Crusade.

  Alan V. Murray, in a very trenchant essay, shows that although divisions of this kind existed, they were not central to the conduct of the crusades, and that although they were mentioned by contemporary chroniclers, they did not attach any great significance to them. This changed when historians writing national histories used these sources and highlighted the contributions made to crusading by their fellow countrymen. This trend continued until comparatively recent times and, in a completely anachronistic way, rulers like Richard I of England, Louis IX

  of France and Frederick Barbarossa have been treated as national heroes because of their crusading activities.

  This collection of essays might justly be subtitled ‘Crusading Paradoxes’. The contributors have shown the complexity of the issues they discuss, and the reader is left with a vivid impression of the cultural diversity of the crusader states, where Christians and Muslims, Latins, Greeks and Armenians coexisted, not without tensions and violence, but for much of the time with a remarkable degree of cooperation and cultural interdependence.

  262

  I N D E X

  Abbasid dynasty 191, 231

  Anatolia 13–14, 16, 42, 56, 84–5, 169,

  Abu Sulayman Dawud 44, 200

  261

  Acco (architecture) 223

  Anazir, Prince of Mauritania 140

  acculturation 245–7, 249

  Angevins 11–12, 121

  Acre 16–17, 20, 22, 27, 30, 44, 121,

  Anglicus, Gilbertus 192–3

  194–5, 242, 247

  Anglo-Norman tradition 178–9

  Adelaide of Sicily 88

  Anna Comnena 10, 15, 61

  Adelard 197

  antichrist 142, 150

  Adelphus 131, 133, 136–7, 142, 144–7,

  Antioch 38, 60, 86, 90–2, 94–8, 115,

  150–2

  117, 260; Byzantine claims on 17, 58;

  Ademar of Chabannes 132

  as centre for scholarship 196–8;

  al-’Adil 30–1, 239–40, 245–6

  epidemic of 193–4; and peacemaking

  Adversus nefandam . . . Saracenorum

  233, 239, 241, 245; siege of 15–16,

  (Peter the Venerable) 148

  118, 124, 162–4, 170, 172, 175–6,

  al-Afdal 34, 43

  180

  Ager Sanguinis see Field of Blood

  Antonios IV, Patriarch 71

  Agulani 14, 149

  apocalyptic tradition 62, 150

  Aimery of Lusignan 92, 95

  apothecaries 190, 193, 205

  Ajlun mountains 32–3

  Apulia 118, 194

  Akropolites, George 71, 74

  Arabia 41, 84, 138

  Alain of Lille 133

  archery 12–14, 16

&nbs
p; Albert of Aachen 88, 117, 123, 176,

  architecture 5–6, 216–27, 262; Holy

  192–3, 199

  Sepulchre 217, 220–2; Hospitallers’

  Albigensian crusades (1209-29) 149

  Refectory, Acco 223; S. Maria,

  Aleppo 17–18, 29, 33, 36–7, 39

  Muristan 224

  Alexander III, Pope 58

  Arda, wife of Baldwin I 88

  Alexandria 42, 249

  Arianism 167–8

  Alexios I Komnenos 14, 56–8, 60, 70, 75,

  Armenia/Armenians 17, 84–7, 92, 97,

  162–6, 168–77, 180–1, 260

  176, 219 see also Latin-Armenian

  Alexios IV Angelos 64, 71

  marriages

  Alexios V Doukas 71

  Artuqids 14, 38

  Alfonso el Sabio of Spain 248

  Asbridge, Tom 89, 91, 233

  Alice of Antioch 89, 91, 96

  Ascalon 42–3, 115, 165, 237, 242

  Alice Rupen 95

  Assassins 41

  Amadeo of Savoy 66–7

  Assises of Antioch 87

  Amalric I of Jerusalem 18, 44, 89,

  Assises of Jerusalem 201–5

  199–200, 237, 239, 249

  Atharib 17, 38

  263

  I N D E X

  Augustine 138–9, 207–8, 231

  92–4, 98–9; capture of Constantinople

  Augustinian canons 217, 226

  64–5, 69–71; collaboration with

  Augustus, Philip 241–2

  crusaders 66–7, 162, 175; diplomacy

  Ayyubids 44, 235, 237

  168–9; identities 55, 67–75; ideology

  Azaz 29, 90, 246

  2, 55, 60–2, 67–72, 261;

  al-’Azimi 30

  marginalisation 2, 55–6, 61–4;

  perception of outsiders 70–2

  Baghdad Caliphate 13–14, 28, 36, 41–2

  Baghras 95–6

  Cahen, Claude 85–6, 97

  Baha al-Din 30–2, 236, 240, 245–7, 249

  Cairo 42, 44

  Balak, Amir 37, 89

  Cairo Caliphate 13, 29, 246

  Balat see Field of Blood

  Calabria 118, 122, 132

  Baldric of Dol 176, 177, 179, 194

  Capetian dynasty 115, 121

  Baldwin I of Jerusalem 32–3, 87–8, 107,

  capitulation of cities 23, 241–2

  112–14, 117, 123, 162–4, 174–6,

  captive exchanges 23, 230–1, 235

  198–9, 237, 244, 247

  castles 10, 12, 18, 23, 32, 38

  Baldwin II of Jerusalem 18, 29, 33,

  Catharism 149

  88–91, 124, 174, 260

  cavalry 10–14, 16, 19–21

  Baldwin III of Jerusalem 19, 89, 199, 200

  ceasefires 31–2, 34, 38, 41–2, 44;

  Baldwin IV of Jerusalem 200

  initiation of 232–8, 233; signalling of

  Le banquet des médecins (Ibn Butlan) 197

  242

  Banyas 33, 41

  Cecilia of Bourcq 91

  barbarians, redefinition of 71–2

  Cecilia of France 90–1

  Bartholomew of Tortosa 98

  Cecilia of Rethel/Beatrice 90–1

  Baybars 235, 242, 244–5

  ceremonies of accession 72, 113

  Beatrice, wife of Joscelin I 90–1

  Chalkokondyles, Laonikos 74

  Beatrice, wife of Joscelin II 91–2

  Chanson de Jérusalem 189–90

  Bedouin 14, 33

  Chanson de Roland 140

  Belvoir castle 18

  chansons de geste 131, 139–43, 145,

  Benevento, Battle of 12

  147–8, 152, 189–90

  Bethlehem 176, 221

  Charles of Anjou 12, 65

  Bijsterveld, Arnoud-Jan A. 245

  chivalric culture 140–1

  Bischoff, Bernard 144–5

  Chléirigh, Léan Ní 4–5, 261

  Bloch, Marc 1

  choir, Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 217, 220

  Boase, T. H. 85

  Choniates, Niketas 70–1

  Bohemond I of Antioch 12, 15, 58, 62–3,

  Christian internal conflicts 17–18, 99,

  115–19, 122, 163, 166, 169, 172–6,

  114–15, 117–18, 121–2

  180–1, 197

  Christian notions of peace 231–2

  Bohemond II of Antioch 88–9, 91

  Christian solidarity 62, 64, 67, 75, 176–7,

  Bohemond III of Antioch 89, 92–6

  179

  Bohemond IV of Antioch 95–7

  Christianity, rejection of 150–2

  Bohemond VI of Antioch 97–8

  Chronicon (Ademar) 132

  Bohemond VII of Antioch 86, 98

  Chronographia (Theophanes) 137

  Book of the Islamic Market Inspector

  Church Union 55–7, 65, 67, 73

  (al-Shayzari) 205

  Cilicia 17, 57, 84–5, 91–2, 94, 97–9, 114,

  Bouvines, Battle of 12, 19

  117 see also Armenian-Latin marriages

  building materials, reuse of 219–20

  class differences 118–19

  Bulgarians 67, 71

  Classen, Albrecht 141

  Busra 37–8

  clerical celibacy/marriage 167, 172–3

  Byzantium 14, 17–18, 111, 132, 151,

  Clermont, Council of (1095) 5, 14, 22,

  165–6, 170, 180–1, 231, 260 see also

  44, 56–7, 107, 110, 136, 139–40,

  Western attitudes to Byzantium;

  162–7, 172, 176–81

  individual rulers; Armenians and 83–5,

  close order fighting 12, 15–16

  264

  I N D E X

  Cluniac corpus 137

  Duqaq of Damascus 14–15

  Colbert-Fontainebleau Eracles 92

  Dyrrachium 163, 172–3, 176

  collaboration: Byzantines/crusaders 66–7,

  162, 175; medical 44;

  Eastern Church 167–8, 171–4, 177, 181

  Muslims/Christians 42–4

  Eastern warfare 13–17

  Complete Book of the Medical Art (Al-

  Bar Ebroyo 198

  Majusi) 191

  Edessa 17, 22, 39, 88, 90, 92, 98, 132,

  conciliation, gestures of 241–50

  144, 164, 174, 193, 232, 234

  Conrad of Montferrat 121–2, 200

  Edgington, Susan 5, 262

  conspiracy theory of crusading 61–2, 70–1

  Egypt 13–14, 17–18, 41–3, 58, 64–6, 93,

  Constance of Antioch 89, 91–3

  96, 195, 234, 237–8, 246, 249, 258

  Constantine the African 191, 262

  Ekkehard of Aura 194

  Constantine the Great 216, 261

  Ellenblum, Ronnie 235–6

  Constantinople 56, 58, 67, 169–71,

  Embricon of Mainz 131, 133, 136,

  174–5; capture of 64–5, 69–71;

  142–3, 147, 149–52

  crusader designs on 59, 61–6, 71;

  England 12, 113, 121

  patriarchs of 71

  Ephraim (artist) 221

  Crac des Chevaliers 16–18, 242, 247

  Epp, Verena 177

  crop-sharing agreements 32–3

  Ernoul 96–7

  crusade ideology 6, 22–3, 61, 70, 149,

  Errationes in psalmos (Augustine) 138–9

  151, 229, 232, 258

  Eschenbach, Wolfram von 141

  crusader chronicles 136–7

  ethnicity 28, 68, 73, 110–11, 134, 138,

  crypt, Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 218–19

  166, 174, 181

  cultural language problems 232, 239, 243,

  Eucharist issues 167, 172–3

  248–9; gestures 241–50

  Euphemie, wife of Julian of Sidon 97


  cultural studies 1–2

  Eusebius of Caesarea 138

  Cyprus 84–6, 92, 95, 97–8; conquest by

  eyewitness testimony 165, 174, 177–8,

  Richard I 70, 92

  180

  d’Alverny, Thérèse 137

  Fakr al-Din (envoy) 239, 259–60

  Damascus 13, 18, 32–4, 38, 40, 43–4

  famine 193–4

  Damietta 16, 42

  Fatimid rulers 13–14, 18, 28–9, 34, 41–3

  Danes 120–1

  Ferrara, Council of 67

  Daniel, Norman 153

  Field of Blood 17, 36, 91

  Danishmends 14, 88

  Fifth Crusade 16–17, 96–7, 193

  De Haeresibus (John of Damascus) 137

  fighting march 19–20

  De Vita Sua sive Monodiae (Guibert)

  filioque clause 167, 172–3

  164–5

  First Crusade 57–8, 262; and Armenians

  Dédéyan, Gérard 85–6

  83–5, 88; and Byzantium 6, 59–61,

  deference, levels of 243–4

  74, 161–2, 261; Fulcher on 174–81;

  Dei gesta per Francos (Guibert) 4, 131,

  Guibert on 164–74; and identities 107,

  136, 162, 164–74

  110–12, 114–16, 119–25; medics

  Des viandes 206–8

  191–2; Muslim response 28–30;

  dialects 115–18

  peacemaking 232, 243–4; responses to

  Dialogus (Petrus Alfonsi) 137

  Islam 132, 136, 139–40, 150; warfare

  diplomacy 83, 86, 92, 230, 236, 238–41;

  10, 12–18, 22

  Byzantine 168–9; and diplomats

  Flanders 11, 117, 124

  238–41

  Flanders, Count of 15, 58, 177, 179–80

  discipline/indiscipline 16, 19, 21, 120,

  Florence, Council of 67, 73

  180

  Flori, Jean 153

  disease 193–5, 203, 208

  Forse, J. H. 84

  divorce 88–9, 93–4

  Fourth Crusade 3, 55–6, 63–6, 68–71,

  Dorylaeum, Battle of 15, 192, 243

  73–4, 92–3, 237–8, 261

  265

  I N D E X

  France 92, 107, 108, 111, 115, 117, 119

  Guibert of Nogent 4, 88, 161; attitudes to

  France, John 2, 259

  Byzantium 162–77, 181; and crusader

  Franci as general term 116–17, 119, 123

  identities 107–10; and medicine 192,

  Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman

  194, 198–9; responses to Islam 131,

  Emperor 23, 61–3, 70–1, 120–1, 262

 

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