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32 Details from L Derfler, Paul Lafargue and the Flowering of French Socialism (Harvard, 1998), pp48 and 90.
33 See L Trotsky, Results and Prospects , in The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects (London, 1962). For his general account of this revolution, see L Trotsky, 1905 (New York, 1972).
34 Full title: The Mass Strike, the Political Party and the Trade Unions (London, 1986).
35 According to A Sayers, ‘The Failure of Italian Socialism’, International Socialism 37 (first series).
36 R Luxemburg, writing in the spring of 1915, in The Junius Pamphlet (London, 1967), p1.
37 L Trotsky, My Life (New York, 1960), pp233–234.
38 J Canning (ed), Living History: 1914 (London, 1967), p240.
39 V Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary (London, 1963), p47.
40 Quoted in L Trotsky, My Life , p233.
41 D Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany 1780–1918 (London, 1977), pp461–462.
42 A Shlyapnikov, On the Eve of 1917 (London, 1982), p18.
43 R Fox, Smoky Crusade (London, 1938), p192.
44 L Trotsky, My Life , pp233–4.
45 These are quoted in J Joll, Europe Since 1870 (London, 1983), p194.
46 Keir Hardie, quoted in R Miliband, Parliamentary Socialism (London, 1975), p44. For an account of Kautsky’s position, see M Salvadori, Karl Kautsky and the Socialist Revolution 1880–1938 (London, 1979), pp183–185.
47 According to D Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany , p475.
48 Quoted in D MacIntyre, The Great War, Causes and Consequences (Glasgow, 1979), p63.
49 D MacIntyre, The Great War , p64.
50 D Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany , pp488–489.
51 For details, see D Blackbourn, The Fontana History of Germany , pp480, 482.
52 Figures given in J Kocka, Facing Total War (London, 1984), p23.
53 J Kocka, Facing Total War , p17.
54 D MacIntyre, The Great War , p61.
55 Quoted in W Allison and J Fairley, The Monocled Mutineer (London, 1986), p68.
56 For an account of this at Christmas 1916, see extracts from the diary of Lieutenant William St Leger, in M Moynihan (ed), People at War 1914–1918 (London, 1988), p52.
57 There is a full account, based on interviews with participants, in W Allison and J Fairley, The Monocled Mutineer , pp81–111.
58 Translated in V I Lenin, Collected Works , vol 23 (Moscow, 1964), p253.
59 Known as St Petersburg before August 1914.
60 The date is according to the Julian calendar still used in Russia at the time. According to the reformed Gregorian calendar used in the West it was in March.
61 According to the testimony of Kayurov, mentioned in L Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution (London, 1965), p121.
62 S A Smith, ‘Petrograd in 1917: The View from Below’, in D H Kaiser (ed), The Workers’ Revolution in Russia of 1917 (Cambridge, 1987), p61.
63 Quoted in L Trotsky, The History , p181.
64 N N Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution 1917 (Princeton, 1984), p77.
65 N Stone, The Eastern Front (London, 1975), p218.
66 N Stone, The Eastern Front , pp283–284, 291.
67 Figures and further details given in S A Smith, Red Petrograd (Cambridge, 1983), pp10–12.
68 The Bolsheviks took six seats, the Mensheviks seven, but the Menshevik seats were in more middle-class constituencies. See T Cliff, Lenin, Volume 1: Building the Party (London, 1975), p325.
69 In this paragraph I am summarising a long history of activities and theoretical debates. For a full account see T Cliff, Lenin, Volume 1 . I Getzler, Martov (Melbourne, 1967), provides a sympathetic account of the leading Menshevik.
70 Figures given in T Cliff, Lenin, Volume 2: All Power to the Soviets (London, 1976), pp148, 150.
71 Figures quoted with sources in M Haynes, ‘Was there a Parliamentary Alternative in 1917?’, in International Socialism 76, p46.
72 Both sets of figures given, with sources, in M Haynes, ‘Was there a Parliamentary Alternative in 1917?’.
73 For an account of some of these struggles, see S A Smith, Red Petrograd; T Cliff, Lenin, Volume 2 , pp168–189.
74 Quoted in N N Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution , p627–628.
75 Quoted in N N Sukhanov, The Russian Revolution , p629.
76 Figures given with sources in S A Smith, Red Petrograd , p87.
77 V I Lenin, Collected Works , vol 8 (Moscow, 1962), pp28–29.
78 V I Lenin, Collected Works , vol 27 (Moscow, 1977), p98.
79 For an account of this ‘insurrection’, see J M Cammett, Antonio Gramsci and the Origins of Italian Communism (Stanford, 1967), pp52–53.
80 Quoted in P Nettl, Rosa Luxemburg , vol II (London, 1966), p689.
81 S A Smith, Red Petrograd , p243.
82 For details, see V Serge, Year One of the Russian Revolution (London, 1992), p282.
83 V Serge, Year One , p245.
84 V Serge, Year One , p265.
85 F A Upton, The Finnish Revolution, 1917–18 (Minnesota, 1980), p522, quoted in J Rees, ‘In Defence of October’, International Socialism 52, p33.
86 According to J Joll, Europe Since 1870 (London, 1990), p237.
87 For this, and further details of the revolution in German-speaking Austria, see F L Carsten, Revolution in Central Europe 1918–19 (London, 1972), pp22–32.
88 For further details and sources on this, and other aspects of the German revolution, see my book The Lost Revolution, Germany 1918–1923 (London, 1982).
89 According to Rosa Leviné-Meyer, who was in a Berlin hospital at the time. See her Leviné (London, 1973), p80.
90 E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (London, 1994), p68.
91 Quoted in E H Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution , vol 3 (Harmondsworth, 1966), pp135–136.
92 Quoted in E H Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution , vol 3, p135.
93 Details in E H Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution , vol 3, p134.
94 Quoted in E Wigham, Strikes and the Governmemt 1893–1981 (London, 1982), p53.
95 G H Meaker, The Revolutionary Left in Spain 1914–1923 (Stanford, 1974), p134.
96 Quoted in G H Meaker, The Revolutionary Left , p141.
97 G H Meaker, The Revolutionary Left , p142.
98 G H Meaker, The Revolutionary Left , p143.
99 For accounts of this strike, see G H Meaker, The Revolutionary Left , pp158–161 and 165–168, and G Brennan, The Spanish Labyrinth (Cambridge, 1974), pp70–71. Meaker sees the outcome of the strike as a defeat for the workers, Brennan as ‘inconclusive’. P Pages, by contrast, describes it as ‘a favourable outcome’ for the workers. See his Andreu Nin, Su Evolución Política (Madrid, 1975).
100 I Turner, Industrial Labour and Politics (London, 1965), p194.
101 The whole story is brilliantly told in Erhard Lucas, Märzrevolution 1920 (Frankfurt, 1974). For a precis of events, see my The Lost Revolution , ch 9.
102 P Spriano, The Occupation of the Factories, Italy 1920 (London, 1975), p60.
103 P Spriano, The Occupation of the Factories , pp21–22.
104 Quoted in P Spriano, The Occupation of the Factories , p56.
105 The full text of his speech is given in R Leviné-Meyer, Leviné .
106 Letter to Jacques Mesnil of April 1921, quoted in P Spriano, The Occupation of the Factories , p132.
107 Quoted in P Spriano, The Occupation of the Factories , pp129–130.
108 A Rossi (pseudonym for Tasca), The Rise of Italian Fascism (London, 1938), p68.
109 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , p74.
110 For a discussion of how real the revolutionary situation was in 1923, see my The Lost Revolution , ch 13.
111 According to A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , pp82, 99.
112 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , pp126–127.
113 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , p103.
114 Figures given by A Rossi, The Rise
of Italian Fascism , pp126–127.
115 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , p148.
116 Quoted in A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , p145.
117 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , p147.
118 A Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism , pp229–231.
119 G Carocci, Italian Fascism (Harmondsworth, 1975), p27.
120 G Carocci, Italian Fascism , p32.
121 See A D Harvey, Collision of Empire (Phoenix, 1994), p511.
122 The best account of these events is to be found in P Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New Jersey, 1991).
123 Lenin, Collected Works , vol 32 (Moscow, 1965), p24.
124 Quoted in M Schachtman, The Struggle for the New Course (New York, 1943), p150.
125 Lenin to the 11th Congress of the RCP(B) in V I Lenin, Collected Works , vol 33 (Moscow, 1976), p288.
126 See, for example, the diaries of Tom Jones, who was secretary to the cabinet, in T Jones, Whitehall Diaries, vol III, Ireland 1918–25 (London, 1971).
127 The 1921 figures, extracted from official statistics in R Palme Dutt, Guide to the Problem of India (London, 1942), p59.
128 J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement 1919–27 (Stanford, 1968), p42.
129 J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , p47.
130 See B Stein, A History of India (London, 1998), p297.
131 This description is from R Palme Dutt, Guide , p112; similar descriptions are to be found in B Stein, A History , p304, and M J Akbar, Nehru (London, 1989), pp116–118.
132 India in 1919 , quoted in R Palme Dutt, Guide , p113.
133 For different accounts of this incident, see B Stein, A History , p309, and M J Akbar, Nehru , p152.
134 Quoted in M J Akbar, Nehru , p154.
135 Hu Shih, extract from ‘The Chinese Renaissance’, translated in F Shurmann and O Schell, Republican China (Harmondsworth, 1977), p55.
136 Figures given in J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , p11.
137 J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , p156.
138 J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , p293.
139 J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , p325.
140 For details, see J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , pp356–361; and H Isaacs, The Tragedy of the Chinese Revolution (Stanford, 1961), pp130–142. The rising also features as the backdrop to André Malraux’s novel, Man’s Fate just as the Hong Kong strike is the backcloth to his Les Conquérants .
141 For accounts of his coup, see J Chesneaux, The Chinese Labor Movement , pp311–313; and H Isaacs, Tragedy , pp89–110.
142 André Malraux’s Man’s Fate is set against the background of these events; the main figure ends up waiting to be thrown into a furnace by Chiang Kai-shek’s forces.
143 See the accounts of the period in R E Ruiz, The Great Rebellion: Mexico 1905–24 (New York, 1982), pp120–122, and A Gilly, The Mexican Revolution (London, 1983), pp28–45.
144 R E Ruiz, The Great Rebellion , p58.
145 According to A Gilly, The Mexican Revolution , p37; for figures which suggest a similar picture, see R E Ruiz, The Great Rebellion , pp59, 63.
146 See L Trotsky, The Third International After Lenin (New York, 1957), and Permanent Revolution (London, 1962).
147 Quoted in F Sternberg, The Coming Crisis (London, 1947).
148 Quoted in J K Galbraith, The Great Crash (London, 1992), p95.
149 See the introduction to F Dobbs, Teamster Rebellion (New York, 1986).
150 Quoted in J K Galbraith, The Great Crash , pp77–78.
151 Quoted in J Braunthal, In Search of the Millennium (London, 1945), p270. See also Daniel Guerin’s description of union leaders embracing the US model in France in the late 1920s, in D Guerin, Front Populaire, Révolution Manquée , (Paris, 1997), pp79–80. Such expressions of optimism contrast with Eric Hobsbawm’s claim that everyone could see the crisis had not gone away in the mid- to late 1920s. See E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (London, 1994), p91.
152 Quoted by F Sternberg, The Coming Crisis .
153 See P Gay, The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism (New York, 1979).
154 George Hicks to 1927 TUC conference, quoted in R Miliband, Parliamentary Socialism , p149.
155 See the account of Stalin and Bukharin’s 1925 arguments in R B Day, The ‘Crisis’ and the ‘Crash’ (London, 1981), pp80–81.
156 For a resumé of Bukharin’s 1928 arguments, see R B Day, The ‘Crisis’ and the ‘Crash’ , pp156–159. By this time Stalin had done another somersault and was claiming that the imminent breakdown of capitalism meant immediate insurrectionary possibilities for Western Communists – a view that was just as mistaken as Bukharin’s.
157 In his Civilisation and its Discontents of the 1920s, Freud seems to accept that the very notion of civilisation is incompatible with humans coming to terms with their instincts in a rational way.
158 See, for instance, G Lukács, The Historical Novel (London, 1962) and Studies in European Realism (New York, 1964). Lukács sees the ‘realist’ novel before 1848 giving way on the one hand to mechanical naturalism, and on the other to subjectivist psychologism. This leads him to reject most twentieth-century literature out of hand. You can, however, accept his central insight without drawing this conclusion.
159 See C P Kindelberger, The World in Depression (London, 1973), pp116–117, 124; see also L Corey, The Decline of American Capitalism (London, 1938), p184.
160 Figures in E H Carr, The Interregnum (London, 1984), p39.
161 Quoted in M Lewin, Lenin’s Last Struggle (London, 1969), p12.
162 And even Trotsky did not challenge the decision immediately.
163 The quotations here are given in J G Wright’s translation of L Trotsky, The Third International After Lenin (New York, 1957), p36. An English translation of this edition of Stalin’s work is to be found in the British Library.
164 There are accounts of these protests in V Serge, Memoirs of a Revolutionary , and M Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism: the USSR on the Eve of the ‘Second Revolution’ (London, 1987). I also once heard the late Harry Wicks describe his personal experience of them when he was a student at a Comintern training school in Russia.
165 M Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism , p2.
166 M Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism , p12.
167 E H Carr and R W Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy , vol 1 (London, 1969), p313.
168 Quoted in I Deutscher, Stalin (London, 1961), p328.
169 Figures given with sources in T Cliff, Russia: A Marxist Analysis (London, 1964), p33.
170 Figures, with sources, given in T Cliff, State Capitalism in Russia (London, 1988), p53.
171 Figures, with sources, given in T Cliff, State Capitalism , p42.
172 These figures are from R W Davies, ‘Forced Labour Under Stalin: The Archive Revelations’, in New Left Review 214 (November–December 1995).
173 Figure calculated, with sources, in T Cliff, State Capitalism , p130.
174 Speech of Stalin in Moscow, 5 April 1927, quoted in H Isaacs, Tragedy , p162.
175 Figures given, with source, in P Frank, Histoire de l’Internationale Communiste (Paris, 1979), p634.
176 Figures given in E Rosenhaft, Beating the Fascists, the German Communists and Political Violence, 1929–33 (Cambridge, 1983), pp44–45.
177 According to a party official cited in E Rosenhaft, Beating the Fascists , p45.
178 Figures from Rote Fahne , 2 February 1932, quoted in L Trotsky, Fascism, Stalinism and the United Front, 1930–34 (London, 1969), p39.
179 W S Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1930–35 (Chicago, 1965), p292.
180 A full breakdown of Nazi membership figures by class and age is to be found in J Noakes and G Pridham, Nazism 1919–45, Volume 1, The Rise to Power 1919–34 (Exeter, 1983), pp84–87.
181 See, for instance, M H Kele, Nazis and Workers (Chapel Hill, 1972), p210. Mühlberger, who tries to deny the Nazis had a middle-class b
ase, admits that its appeal to workers was mainly among rival workers and the unemployed. See D Mühlberger, Hitler’s Followers (London, 1991), pp165, 177, 205.
182 M Mann, ‘As the Twentieth Century Ages’, New Left Review 214, November–December 1995, p110.
183 K Kautsky, ‘Force and Democracy’, translated in D Beetham, Marxists in the Face of Fascism (Manchester, 1983), p248.
184 R Hilferding, ‘Between the Decisions’, translated in D Beetham, Marxists , p261.
185 W S Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power , p142.
186 A Schweitzer, Big Business in the Third Reich (Bloomington, 1963), p107.
187 J Noakes and G Pridham, Nazism , p94.
188 As is admitted by H A Turner, who is generally sceptical about claims that Hitler owed his rise to power to business support, in H A Turner, German Business and the Rise of Hitler (New York, 1985), p243.
189 A Schweitzer, Big Business , p95.
190 See A Schweitzer, Big Business , pp96–97, 100. Turner claims the major Ruhr industrialists were colder towards Hitler than journalistic accounts maintain. But he does admit that Hitler addressed influential business audiences. See H A Turner, German Business , p172.
191 Quoted in F L Carsten, Britain and the Weimar Republic (London, 1984), pp270–271.
192 Even Turner cannot fault this account of the sequence of events. For further sources, see I Kershaw (ed), Why Did Weimar Fail? (London, 1990), and P D Stachura, The Nazi Machtergreifung (London, 1983). For an overview of all the arguments from a Marxist point of view, see D Gluckstein’s excellent The Nazis, Capitalism and the Working Class (London, 1999), ch 3.
193 J Braunthal, History of the International , vol II (London, 1966), p380.
194 Vorwärts evening edition, 30 January 1933, quoted, for instance, in E B Wheaton, The Nazi Revolution 1933–85 (New York, 1969), p223.
195 E Rosenhaft, Beating the Fascists , provides an excellent account of this.
196 See A Merson, Communist Resistance in Nazi Germany (London, 1986), p29.
197 Quoted in J Braunthal, History of the International , p383.
198 A Merson, Communist Resistance , p61.
199 A Sturmthal, The Tragedy of European Labour 1918–39 (London, 1944), p51.
200 A Sturmthal, The Tragedy of European Labour , p172.