A People’s History of the World
Page 83
201 Speech quoted by J Braunthal, a leading social democratic activist in Vienna at the time, in J Braunthal, In Search of the Millennium (London, 1945), p280.
202 Quoted in A Sturmthal, The Tragedy of European Labour , p176.
203 A Sturmthal, The Tragedy of European Labour , p177.
204 J Jackson, The Popular Front in France, Defending Democracy 1934–38 (Cambridge, 1990), p28.
205 J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , p28.
206 J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , pp5–6.
207 The figures and the quote are from J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , p88.
208 Quoted in J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , pp10, 88.
209 According to J Damos and M Gibelin, June ’36 (London, 1986), p229.
210 According to J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , p112.
211 J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , p13.
212 Figures given in J Jackson, The Popular Front in France , pp219–220. See also J Danos and M Gibelin, June ’36, p214.
213 For figures on numbers sacked and locked out, see J Danos and M Gibelin, June ’36, p230.
214 G Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (London, 1938).
215 Quoted in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution and the War in Spain (London, 1972), p82.
216 Description of the 1 May demonstration in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , p81.
217 Figures from a speech by Robles, given in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , p84.
218 See the accounts of what happened in the major towns in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , pp102–118.
219 P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , p121.
220 The report of the meeting, by the anarchist leader Santillan, is translated in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , p130.
221 Report of his speech to a CNT gathering soon afterwards, in R Fraser, Blood of Spain (Harmondsworth, 1981), p112. For an account sympathetic to the anarcho-syndicalists see J B Acarete, Durutti (Barcelona, 1975), pp176–179.
222 See the account of the war in the north in P Broué and E Témime, The Revolution , pp389–414.
223 This argument was used, for instance, by the German philosopher Heidegger to excuse his membership of the Nazi Party: ‘To the severe and justified reproaches over “a regime that has exterminated millions of Jews, that has made terror a norm” … I can only add that instead of the “Jews” one should put the “East Germans”’ (letter to Herbert Marcuse, 20 January 1948), in R Wolin, The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader (London, 1993), p163.
224 C K Kindelberger, The World in Depression , p233.
225 C K Kindelberger, The World in Depression , p272.
226 American Civil Liberties Union report quoted in A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step (New York, 1982), p17.
227 A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step , p45.
228 A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step , p61.
229 See, for example, B J Widick, Detroit, City of Race and Class Violence (Chicago, 1972), p74.
230 B J Widick, Detroit , p64.
231 A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step , p67.
232 A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step , p67.
233 Quoted in A Preis, Labor’s Giant Step , p70.
234 J T Farrell, Selected Essays (New York, 1964).
235 R Ellison, Invisible Man (Harmondsworth, 1965), p404.
236 A H Hansen, Economic Stabilisation (New York, 1971), p76.
237 For figures and details, see T Mason, Nazism, Fascism and the Working Class (Cambridge, 1995), p114.
238 E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes , p144.
239 Quoted in J Anderson, The United States, Great Britain and the Cold War, 1944–1947 (Columbia, MD, 1981), p6.
240 A J P Taylor, The Second World War (Harmondsworth, 1976), p86.
241 Quote in J Anderson, The United States , p6.
242 G Kolko, Century of War (New York, 1994), p253.
243 Figures given in G Kolko, Century of War , p207.
244 This process of double-think is well described in Gunter Grass’s novel, The Dog Years .
245 Quoted, for instance, in R Miliband, Parliamentary Socialism , p281.
246 According to figures in G Kolko, Century of War , p200.
247 P Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy (London, 1990), p10.
248 P Ginsborg, A History , p67.
249 Quoted in G Kolko, Century of War , p294.
250 Quoted in G Kolko, The Politics of War (New York, 1970), pp114–115.
251 For a full account of these discussions see G Kolko, The Politics of War , pp346–347.
252 Quoted in G Kolko, Century of War , p297.
253 For one account of his press conference, see G Kolko, Century of War , p297.
254 See, for instance, G Kolko, Century of War , pp187–188.
255 See D Eudes, The Kapetanios (London, 1972), p172.
256 For a full description, see D Eudes, The Kapetanios , pp190–191.
257 See, for instance, G Kolko, Century of War , pp278–279, and The Politics of War , pp185–192.
258 Description of the meeting at which he said this, in D Eudes, The Kapetanios , p216.
259 Quoted in D Eudes, The Kapetanios , p229.
260 Quoted in G Kolko, Century of War , p375.
261 P Ginsborg, A History , p46; E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes , p168.
262 G Kolko, Century of War , p306.
263 A Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–62 (Harmondsworth, 1979), p25.
264 China was (and is) the fifth permanent Security Council member. But its seat was occupied by Chiang Kai-shek’s Kuomintang, even after it fled mainland China to establish a US client regime in Taiwan. It was not until the 1970s that China proper was able to take the seat.
265 Report on contents of recently unearthed documents, in the Guardian , 2 October 1998.
266 Quoted in D Horowitz, From Yalta to Vietnam (Harmondsworth, 1967), pp70, 73.
267 See I H Birchall, Workers Against the Monolith (London, 1974), p62, and P Ginsborg, A History , pp110–112.
268 According to the Czechoslovak Communist Party journal, Nova Mysl , nos 6–7, 1968.
269 A Crosland, The Future for Socialism (London, 1956), p115.
270 A Crosland, The Future for Socialism , p115.
271 B Stein, A History , p327.
272 B Stein, A History , p336.
273 According to B Lapping, End of Empire (London, 1985), p356.
274 There are differing accounts of the mutiny in M J Akbar, Nehru , p369, and B Stein, A History , p360.
275 See M J Akbar, Nehru , pp381–382.
276 Now Zambia and Zimbabwe.
277 Quoted in B Lapping, Empire , p106.
278 Daily Telegraph , 28 September 1953, quoted in P Foot, The Politics of Harold Wilson (Harmondsworth, 1968), p111.
279 M C Kaser, An Economic History of Eastern Europe (London, 1986), p9.
280 Quoted in M Haynes and P Binns, ‘Eastern European Class Societies’, International Socialism 7 (Winter 1979).
281 M Jaenicker, Der Dritte Weg: Die Anti-Stalinistische Opposition gegen Ulbricht seit 1953 (Cologne, 1964), p51.
282 For a full account of these events, see chapter 6 of my Class Struggles in Eastern Europe (London, 1984).
283 P Fryer, Hungarian Tragedy (London, 1956), p46.
284 According to Hungarian official documents, summarised in G Litvan (ed), The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 (London, 1996), p144.
285 For the most comprehensive collection, see B Lomax, Hungarian Workers’ Councils of 1956 (New York, 1990). A much earlier collection, including transcripts of radio broadcasts, is M J Lasky (ed), The Hungarian Revolution (London, 1957). See also S Kopacsi, In the Name of the Working Class (New York, 1986), and for a brief account of the dynamics of the revolution, chapter 7 of my Class Struggles in Eastern Europe .
286 G Litvan (ed), The Hungarian Revolution , pp126–127.
287 According to J L Anderon, Che Guevar
a (New York, 1997), p216.
288 D Seers and others, Cuba: The Economic and Social Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1964), p20.
289 E R May and P D Zelikow (eds), The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House during the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
290 Quoted in D Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (London, 1970), p78.
291 Figures given in J Deleyne, The Chinese Economy (London, 1973), p59.
292 See the manifesto ‘Whither China?’ of the Sheng-wu-lien, translated in International Socialism 37 (first series).
293 According to J Deleyne, Chinese , p59.
294 D Bell, The End of Ideology (Illinois, 1960), p84.
295 H Marcuse, One Dimensional Man (London, 1964), ppxi–xii.
296 For the Cordobazo of May 1969, see R Falcon and B Galitelli, Argentina: from Anarchism to Peronism (London, 1987), pp171–174.
297 For a fuller discussion of these issues, see the appendix to my Explaining the Crisis .
298 I have given a bare summary here of much longer arguments. For a popular presentation of these, see my book Economics of the Madhouse . For a more technical accounts, see my Explaining the Crisis .
299 According to W Hutton, The State We’re In (London, 1994), p19.
300 For a full account of these events, see chapter 9 of my book, Class Struggles in Eastern Europe .
301 Numerical breakdown of ‘adjusting’ economies given by R Sobhan, ‘Rethinking the Market Reform Paradigm’, Economic and Political Weekly (Bombay), 25 July 1992.
302 Quoted in J Petras and M Morley, Latin America in the Time of Cholera (New York, 1992), p14.
303 Food and Agriculture Organisation, The State of Food and Agriculture 1991 .
304 See, for example, figures in the Observer , 6 December 1998.
305 Moroslav Holub, quoted in the Guardian , 12 March 1999.
306 World Bank, World Development Report 1991 , pp4–5.
307 S Brittan, Financial Times , 10 December 1992.
308 J M Stopford and S Strange, Rival States, Rival Firms (Cambridge, 1991), p1.
309 For a detailed account of the negotiations, see M Mohanty, ‘Strategies for Solution of Debt Crisis: An Overview’, Economic and Political Weekly (Bombay), 29 February 1992.
Conclusion
1 T Jackson and N Marks, Measuring Sustainable Economic Welfare: A Pilot Index 1950–1990 (Stockholm, 1994).
2 The figure is given in J Schor, The Overworked American .
3 UN Human Development Report 1999 (Oxford, 1999).
4 R Luxemburg, ‘The Crisis of Social Democracy’, in R Luxemburg, Selected Political Writings (London, 1972), pp195–196.
5 R Luxemburg, ‘The Crisis of Social Democracy’, p196.
6 Speech given in Moscow, July 1921, reported in Pravda , 12 July 1921, quoted in P Broué, Trotsky (Paris, 1988), p349.
7 L Trotsky, The Death Agony of Capitalism and the Tasks of the Fourth International (London, no date), p8.
8 Red Cross, 1999 World Disasters Report , summarised in the Guardian , 24 June 1999.
9 Quoted by Mark Almond, Independent on Sunday , 6 June 1999.
10 V I Lenin, ‘What Is To Be Done?’, in V I Lenin, Collected Works , vol 5 (Moscow, 1961), pp385–386.
11 V I Lenin, ‘What Is To Be Done?’, in Collected Works , vol 5, p422.
12 For a fuller discussion on this, see my article, ‘Party and Class’, reprinted in T Cliff, D Hallas, C Harman and L Trotsky, Party and Class (London, 1996).
13 A Gramsci, The Modern Prince and Other Essays (London, 1957), p59.
Glossary
People
Abelard, Pierre: Twelfth-century thinker condemned by church. Castrated after secret love-affair with Héloise.
Alexander the Great: Macedonian ruler who established Greek Empire over whole of Middle East from Indus to Nile.
Ali: Son-in-law of Mohammed, hero of ‘Shi’ites’ opposed to what they saw as ‘degeneration’ of Islam from late seventh-century onwards.
Allende, Salvador: Middle of road member of Chilean Socialist Party, president of country 1970–73, overthrown by military coup which killed thousands. Committed suicide after organising armed defence of presidential palace.
Aquinas, Thomas: Thirteenth-century theologian, influenced by Aristotle’s writings. His ideas laid basis for Catholic orthodoxy in centuries after.
Aristotle: Ancient Greek philosopher and scientist. Disciple of Plato but developed very different philosophy dominant in Europe in late Middle Ages.
Ashoka (sometimes Asoka): Ruler of Mauryan Empire at its peak in fourth century BC. Converted to Buddhism.
Augustine of Hippo: Christian bishop of around AD 400, writings influenced mainstream Christian theology for next 1,000 years.
Augustus: First Roman emperor, 27 BC to AD 14.
Aurangzeb: Last Mogul emperor to exercise great power. Imprisoned his father, Shah Jahan, in fort in Agra. Tried, unsuccessfully, to cement his rule by imposing Islam upon imperial officials.
Averröes (ibn-Rushd): Twelfth-century Arab philosopher in Moorish Spain, commentaries on works of Aristotle very influential among thirteenth-century Christian scholars.
Bacon, Roger: Thirteenth-century scholar and scientist. Wrote down formula for gunpowder for first time in Europe.
Beaverbrook, Lord: Max Aitken, Canadian-born British newspaper millionaire, government minister in 1916 and 1940–42.
Bernstein, Eduard: Former collaborator with Engels, major supporter of reformism within German socialism at end of nineteenth-century. Opposed First World War, but also revolution.
Bismarck, Otto von: Aristocrat, chancellor of Prussia and then of Germany 1862–90, responsible for wars which established German Empire as capitalist state.
Blanc, Louis: French socialist leader of mid-nineteenth century who believed in method of reforms from existing state, played key role in Republican government of February–June 1848.
Blanqui, Auguste: French revolutionary who believed in dictatorship of proletariat to be brought about by insurrectionary conspiracies – spent much of life in prison.
Blum, Léon: Leader of French Socialist Party (SFIO), prime minister in Popular Front governments 1936–37. Imprisoned in Germany in Second World War.
Brecht, Bertolt: Foremost German playwright (and poet) of twentieth century, Communist from late 1920s onwards.
Brezhnev, Leonid: Ruler of USSR from 1964 to 1982, period characterised by strengthening of central repression, but also by growing economic stagnation.
Brissot, Jacques Pierre: Journalist, leader of Girondin Party during Great French Revolution, executed October 1793.
Brüning, Heinrich: Leader of German Catholic Centre Party and chancellor 1930–32.
Brutus: Best-known assassin of Julius Caesar.
Bukharin, Nikolai: Russian Bolshevik leader and theoretician. Allied with Stalin in mid-1920s. Executed by Stalin 1937.
Burke, Edmund: Late eighteenth-century Whig opponent of British colonialism in America and oppression in Ireland who became leading Tory propagandist against French Revolution.
Caballero, Largo: Leader of Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE), minister of labour 1931–33, imprisoned after Asturias rising of 1934, prime minister 1936–37, forced to resign May 1937.
Caesar, Julius: Former supporter of Marius who conquered Gaul and then got support of poor when he seized dictatorial power in 49 BC, assassinated 44 BC.
Calvin, Jean: French-born leader of one wing of Reformation in mid-sixteenth century, preached doctrine that everything is ordained by god in advance, effective ruler of Geneva.
Castro, Fidel: Landowner’s son who led guerrilla force in Cuba 1956–58, which took power on 31 December. Effective ruler of country since then.
Chaplin, Charlie: Most famous comic film actor in US, directed own films, with left-wing stance, like Modern Times and The Great Dictator . Banned from entering US through late 1940s and 1950s.
Charles V: Ruler of Spain, Netherlands and Holy Roman
Empire first half of sixteenth century.
Chaucer, Geoffrey: Fourteenth-century London writer, one of first to use English.
Chiang Kai-shek: General and leader of Chinese nationalist Kuomintang after 1925. Ruler of China 1927–49 and of Taiwan in 1950s and 1960s.
Churchill, Winston: English politician of first half of twentieth century. Enthusiast for imperialism in Africa and India, minister in pre-1914 Liberal government, wartime coalition government and Tory governments of 1920s. On right of Tory party in 1930s, but believed Hitler threat to British Empire. Prime minister during Second World War and again in early 1950s.
Clive, Robert: Official of East India Company responsible for Britain’s first conquests in India in 1750s.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor: English poet of late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, friend of Wordsworth.
Collins, Michael: Military leader of Irish guerrilla forces fighting Britain after First World War. Accepted treaty with Britain and partition in 1921. Killed while leader of pro-treaty forces in 1922.
Connolly, James: Irish socialist born in Scotland 1870. Organiser for IWW in US, then for Irish Transport and General Workers Union in Belfast. Led union for first two years of world war, which he opposed. Formed workers’ Citizen Army and played leading role in Easter Rising of 1916. Shot by British government.
Constantine: Roman emperor of early fourth century AD who moved capital of empire to Byzantium and made Christianity official religion.
Copernicus: Polish monk of first half of sixteenth century who set out first modern European argument that earth moves round sun.
Cortés, Hernando: Led Spanish conquest of Mexico in early 1520s.
d’Holbach: French materialist philosopher of eighteenth century, associated with Enlightenment.
Daladier, Éduard: Leader of French Radical Party, prime minister 1933, 1934, 1938–40.
Dante Alighieri: Italian poet, born Florence 1265, one of first writers in modern Italian.
Danton, Georges Jacques: Lawyer on radical wing of bourgeoisie in French Revolution. Most revolutionary figure in Girondin government of 1792, then joined with Robespierre to overthrow that government. Member of Committee of Public Safety until guillotined April 1794.
De Gaulle, Charles: Only senior figure in French army to oppose collaboration with Germany after June 1940. Figurehead for Resistance, based in London. Premier of France 1944–46. Returned to office against background of attempted coup in 1958, ran government until 1969.