A People’s History of the World
Page 88
Archangel (1919) 435
Arditi del popolo 444 , 445
Ardrey, Robert 3 , 7
Argentina British influence in nineteenth century 314 ; British investments in 397
Aristocracy in ancient Mesopotamia 36 ; in ancient Meso-America 36 ; early Arab 126 ; in early medieval China 107 ; Mongol 115 ; French and Calvinist Reformation 191 , 192 ; Scots 194 ; English 204 , 205 ; in English Civil War 207 ; in French Revolution 280 , 285–286 , 288–289
Aristophanes 68
Aristotelian science 238
Aristotle on slaves 65 ; philosophy 69 ; rediscovery in medieval Europe 145 , 148
Arkwright, Richard 234 , 257
Army of Aragon in Spanish Civil War 505
Arnold, Richard 215
Artisans in ancient Egypt 40 , 191 (see also Craft workers ); in ancient India 51–53 ; in Byzantine Empire 120 ; medieval 154 ; in Hussite rebellion 153 (see also Ciompi ); in Reformation 185 ; in English Civil War 209 , 211 , 216 ; in Mogul India 226 , 228 ; in American Revolution 268 , 270 , 271 , 323 ; in France late eighteenth century 286 (see also Sans-culottes ); Britain in 1790s 305 ; German exiles in France 329 ; conditions in 1840s 337 ; in 1848 Revolution 335 , 336 , 339–340
Aryans 45 , 48
Ashanti War Britain’s 394
Ashoka 51
Asiatic society 27 , 55
Assault Guard 503
Assyrians 40 , 46
Astrolabe 131 , 179
Astrology 20 , 238
Astronomy 238 ; origins of 20
Asturias uprising (1934) 501
Atahualpa 168–169 ; on absurdities of Christian beliefs 169
Athanasius 99
Athens ancient democracy 68 ; fighting (1944–45) 537–538 ; polytechnic occupation (1973) 583
Atlantic trade 266
Atom bomb 527
Atomism Greek 69 , 327
Attlee, Clement 526
Auden, W H 471
Augustine of Hippo, Saint 97 , 103
Augustus 80 , 81
Aurangzeb 227
Austen, Jane 317 ; lives depicted in novels 321
Australia pre-colonial 14 ; wool 379 ; strikes (1919) 437
Australopithecus 7
Austria in 1848 335 , 336 , 340 ; empire after 1848 342 ; 1918–19 435 ; Social Democrat government 491 ; middle class 491 ; absorbed into Nazi Germany 493
Austro-Hungarian Empire growth of minority nationalisms within 389 (see also Balkans ); army collapses (October 1918) 430
Autarky 1930s 519 , 520 ; and drive to war 521
Auto da fé 167 ; in eighteenth-century Spain 244
Autolite Toledo strike 514
Avant-gardism 467–468
Aventine Assembly Rome (1924) 446
Averroës impact on late medieval Europe 145
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 131
Axum civilisation 136 (see also Ethiopia , ancient)
Aylulli 28
Aztecs 33 ; technology 166 , 167 ; empire, comparison with Spanish Empire 166 ; rise of 166–167 ; class division 166 ; militaristic ideology and religion 166 ; Spanish conquest of 161 , 162 , 165–168
Ba’ath Party 559
Babeuf, ‘Gracchus’ 302
Babi Yar Massacre 530
Babur 220
Babylon (Mesopotamia) 47
Babylon (present-day Cairo) 125
Bacon, Francis rejects Copernican view 238
Bacon, Roger 146 , 148 , 176
Bacon’s Rebellion 251
Badoglio, General given office (1943) 533 , 535
Baghdad founded 117 , 129 ; as centre of learning 131 , 132 ; sacked 133
Baker Plan 599
Balkans Great Power rivalry over at beginning of twentieth century 398 ; Balkan Wars (1912–13) 403
Ball, John 151
Baltic republics 524
Balzac, Honoré de 317 ; on class and French Calvinism 191
Banchelli on weakness of fascist squads when people fought back 444
Band societies 6–9
Bangladesh formation of 554
Bank failures (1929–33) 469
Bank of France during Paris Commune 373
Banking in Arab Middle Ages 129–130 ; in Mogul India 226
Banknotes in Sung China 110
Bankruptcy state threat of (France 1780s) 289
Bantu speakers spread of across central and southern Africa 15 , 138
Barbados slaves and bond slaves 250 , 251
Barbarians meaning agriculturists 29 , 34 ; on frontiers of China 106 ; meaning peoples outside Roman Empire 85
Barbarism meaning destruction of civilisation and culture 39
Barbarossa 1941 German offensive 529
Barbusse, Henri 412
Barcelona relative decline in sixteenth century 181
Barnave, Antoine monarchy to protect property 281
Baruch, Bernard 464
Basil of Caesarea 99
Bastille 244 ; storming of 279 , 290
Batista, Fulgencio 567 , 568
Bauer, Bruno 327
Bavarian Soviet Republic 434 , 441
Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin 244
Beaverbrook, Lord 389
Beethoven, Ludwig van 303
Beijing capital of China 116 ; summer palace burnt by Anglo-French force 360 ; falls to Chinese Communists 554
Belfast in 1792 307 ; strike (1907) 400 ; general strike (1919) 436
Belgium annexed by France 304 ; independence 325 ; general strikes for franchise 390
Bell, Daniel on ‘full employment’, end of ‘class division’ and ‘end of ideology’ 577
Bellow, Saul 566
Benares under Moguls 226
Bengal under Moguls 227 ; British conquest of 266 , 356 ; pillaged by East India Company 259 ; British partition of 1905 450 ; famine (1942) 527 ; 1947 partition 553
Benin 137 , 256
Berg, Alban 467
Bergson, Henri support for war 405
Beria killed 563
Berkeley, 1966 581
Berlin in revolution (1918) 431 ; airlift (1948) 545
Berlin–Baghdad railway 397
Berlin Wall fall of 560 , 592
Bernard, Saint 145
Bernstein, Eduard ‘Revisionist’ arguments of 392 , 433 , 440 ; states Weimar not a capitalist republic 466
Bevin, Ernest 526
Bishops early 96
Bismarck, Otto von 342 ; on June 1848 340 ; punitive terms after Franco-Prussian War 369 ; helps in crushing of Commune 371–372 ; German nationalism 389
Black Death 152
Black Dwarf (newspaper) 323
Black Panther Party 579
Black revolt US 578
Black and Tans 452
Black Thursday (1929) 469
Blackburn, Robin on use of racism in Virginia 251
Blake, William 303
Blanc, Louis 335 , 338
Blanqui, Auguste ideas and life 372
Blanquists and Paris Commune 372 , 373
Blitzkrieg 523
Bloch, Marc on ‘second feudal age’ 145
Blum, Léon 495 , 496 , 497 , 498–499
Boccaccio 146 , 176
Boer War 382 , 396
Bohemia late medieval economic development 153 ; economic growth in sixteenth century 199 ; economic stagnation after Thirty Years War 200 , 197 , 198–200 , 201–202 (see also Hussites )
Bois, Guy on ‘transformation of Year 1000’ 144 ; on crisis of the fourteenth century 149
Bolivar, Simon 303 , 312–314
Bolivia 571 ; Che Guevara in 570
Bolshevik Party and Moscow rising of 1905 401 ; characterisation of revolution needed in Russia 402 ; opposes war (1914) 407 ; historical disagreements with Mensheviks before 1917 415 ; strength in 1917 420 , 421 (see also Lenin )
Bolshevism and Stalinism 448 , 477
Bombay strikes 379 ; naval mutiny 1946 553
Bombay Programme 561
Bonaparte, Napoleon 299–300 ; and Egypt 362 ; character of his rule 300 , 304 ; fa
ils to conquer Saint-Domingue 312 ; in Spain and Russia 305 ; defeat 305
Bond slaves in ancient Greece 67 (see also Slavery, Debt slaves, Indentured servants )
Book burning in Ch’in China 59 ; late eighteenth-century Manchu China 225
Bordiga, Amadeo 444
Bose, Subhas Chandra 551 (see also Indian National Army )
Bosnia in late nineteenth century 343 ; in 1914 403 ; civil war, US intervention in 600
Bosses’ strike Chile (1972) 585
Boston Massacre 268 ; Tea Party 269 ; and American Revolution 268 , 269 , 271
Boulton, Matthew 257
Bourbons 192 , 233 ; restored to throne of France 300 , 341
Bourgeoisie claims that it existed in Sung China 111 ; weakness in Byzantine Empire 120 ; in Abbasid Revolution 128–129 ; French wars of religion 129 , 192–193 ; Indian in seventeenth and eighteenth century 228 , 229 , 355–356 ; French in late eighteenth century 285 , 286 ; vacillation and divisions in French Revolution 290–292 ; in 1848 337–339 ; Marx and Engels on 330 ; Marx on 341 ; German put their faith in Bismarck 342 ; Russian in 1917 414 ; in colonial world 462 ; Basque in Spanish Civil War 507
Boxer Rebellion 449
Boyle, Robert 240
Brady Plan 599
Brahmans 48 , 50 , 51 , 53
Braunthal, Julius on willingness of German workers to resist Hitler 488 ; on disastrous policy of Austrian social democrats in 1933–34 492–493
Bread ration in Petrograd (1917–18) 424 , 426
Brecht, Bertolt Mother Courage and Her Children 196 ; 467 , 471
Brest-Litovsk negotiations (January 1918) arguments in Bolsheviks Party and Soviet over 426
Brezhnev, Leonid 560
Brissot, Jacques-Pierre 282 ; on threat of ‘mob’ 291 ; declares ‘war of liberation’ 303
Britain impact of French Revolution 305 ; navy mutinies of 1797 307 ; loses war against Toussaint L’Ouverture 312 ; policy to declining Ottoman Empire 363 ; middle class and gains from empire 358 ; imperialist nationalism 389 ; investments overseas in 1880s 396 ; general elections (1931 and 1935) 483 ; government and Spanish Civil War 506 ; policy and run-up to Second World War 522 ; ruling class split in 1940 525 ; Labour government 1945 544 ; repression in Malaya, Kenya and Cyprus 557 ; election (1974) 584
Britain, Battle of 523
British Empire strategic interdependence of parts 397 ; extended in Middle East 558
Brno October–November 1918 40
Bronze discovery of 17 , 34 ; growing use of in second millennium BC 41 , 45 ; expense of 46 ; in ancient China 54
Bronze Age 17
Brooke, Rupert enthusiast for war 406
Brown, John 348
Bruges 195
Brüning, Heinrich 485
Bruno, Giordano 240
Brunswick, Duke of threatens vengeance against revolutionary Paris 282
Brunt, P A on Plebeians 74 ; on effects of Roman slavery on peasantry 75
Brutus 80 , 81
Buckingham, Duke of 206
Budapest October–November 1918 430 (see also Hungary, Soviet Republic ); Central Workers’ Council of, (1956) 565
Buddhism 51 , 52 , 53 ; 97 ; spreads to China 103 ; in China 58 , 62 , 107 , 108 , 113
Buffon, Georges de 245 , 317
Buganda kingdom of 137
Bukhara 127 , 133
Bukharin, Nikolai 393 , 426 , 466 , 472 , 473 , 474 , 475 , 480
Bulgaria involvement in Balkan Wars (1912–13) 403 ; in 1989 592
Bull Run, Battle of 349
Bunker Hill 271
Bureaucracy of Mauryan Empire 49 ; in pre-imperial and early imperial China 57 ; in Ming China 223 ; in Mogul India 225 , 226 ; in Soviet Union 471–476 , 478
Burghers medieval 151 , 154 ; in Reformation 185 , 186 , 187 , 189 ; French and Calvinism 191–192 ; of Geneva 194 ; Bohemian 199 ; English and Reformation 204
Burke, Edmund denunciation of French revolution in 315 ; supports slavery 315 ; popularity of writings among upper classes everywhere 316
Busama (New Guinea) 15
Byzantine Empire 117–122 ; language of 117 ; stagnation 123 ; crisis 124 ; falls to Ottoman Turks 122
Byzantium capital of Roman Empire 85 , 87
Caballero, Largo 500 , 502 , 505 , 508
Caesar, Julius 78 , 80
Caetano Marcelo overthrow of 585
Cairo 117 , 125 ; built 133 ; taken by Ottomans 220
Cajamarca 168
Calendars first 20 , 34 ; in indigenous American civilisations 162
Caligula 81
Calpulli 28
Calvin, Jean 178 , 183 ; socially conservative 183 ; 191 , 192 , 194
Calvinism features of 191 ; appeal to section of burghers 191 ; in Geneva 194 ; in Scotland 194 ; in Low Countries 195
Calvinists 198 ; English 205 , 206
Cambodia ancient 52
Camel domesticated 123 ; use in Sahara 139
Camus, Albert 566
Canada British conquest of 266
Canals and industrial revolution 319
Candide (Voltaire) 233 , 242 , 244
Cannibalism 222 ; myths of 7 , 163 , 394
Cannon first 146 , 179
Canton 1920s 457–458
Capitalism embryos of in late medieval Europe 156–157 ; and Protestantism 182 ; and English Revolution 216 , 218 ; elements of in Ming China 222 ; slavery and rise of 254–256 ; as a global system 330 , 333 ; contrast with previous class societies 331 ; achieves global domination 368 ; Japanese path to 367 ; total system at beginning of twentieth century 379–381 ; mature 384 ; French aims in First World War 409 ; German aims in First World War 409
Capitalist crises Marx and Engels on 330 , 331 , 332
Capitalist farmers 287
Capitalists British in eighteenth century 266
Captains’ Movement Portugal 1974–75 585–586
Car plants 549 (see Ford, General Motors and Renault, Paris )
Carlism 509
Carolina, North and South in American Revolution 266
Carpet bombing 527
Carpetbaggers 352
Carranza 461
Cars, mass produced 463 , 549
Carthage 72
Casas Viejas 501
Casement, Roger on horrors of Leopold’s colony in Congo 395
Cassius 80
Caste system origins of 48 ; changes in 49 , 50 , 53 ; in Mogul India 226 ; opposed by Indian sects 228 ; reinforced under British rule 356 , 359
Castile, Kingdom of decline in sixteenth century 195 ; in eighteenth century 236
Castro, Fidel 567–570
Castro, Raúl 567
Catalan nationalism 501
Cataline 77–78
Catalonia autonomy in sixteenth century 195 ; in seventeenth century 196 , 201 ; in 1919 436
Cathedrals medieval 146
Catherine the Great 243 , 316
Catholic church medieval 147–148 ; corruption in early sixteenth century 182 ; 1950s influence in southern Europe 578 , 579 ; modern Poland 564 (see also Counter-Reformation )
Catholic monarchs 156 (see also Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain )
Cattle and religion in India 48 , 50 ; dung as fertiliser 142
Cavaignac, Louis-Eugène 339
Cavaliers 208 , 209
Cavour, Camillo Benso di 342
CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups) 501–502
Censorship collapse during English Revolution 240 ; collapse in Czechoslovakia (1968) 579
Central America in 1950s 566
Central Asia and Chinese influences 107
Central Committee of National Guards of 1871 370–372
Central Militia Committee (revolutionary Catalonia) 505
Cervantes, Miguel de 177
CGL, Italian (General Confederation of Labor) truce with fascists 444 ; anti-fascist three-day general strike 445 ; relief at formation of Mussolini government 445
Ch’ang-an 107 , 108
Chadwi
ck, Henry on bureaucratisation of early church 96
Chalier Joseph 292
Champ de Mars Massacre 281
Chaplin, Charlie 517 , 526 , 546
Charlemagne 86 , 104
Charles I of England, execution 203 , 215 (see also Revolution, English )
Charles V Emperor of Holy Roman Empire and Spain 184 , 190 , 194
Charles VII of France 173
Charles X of France 325
Chartism 324–325 ; Engels’s contacts with 327 ; land scheme 384
Chaucer, Geoffrey 146 , 176 , 179
Chauri Chaura 455–456
Chechens 524
Chemistry 237 ; organic 385
Chen Sh’eng 60
Chesneaux Jean quoted on Chinese workers after First World War 454
Chetniks 540
Chiang Kai-shek 458–460 , 525 , 555
Chieftainships 15 , 48 , 104
Children employment in factories 318 , 322
Chile Indian revolt against Spain 196 ; British influence in nineteenth century 314 ; Allende government 584–585
China 14 ; ancient 27 , 45 ; ancient alphabet 17 ; character of ruling class 54 , 55 ; growth of ancient civilisation 47 , 54–56 ; waterway system 54 ; role of merchants 55 ; Chou Dynasty 45 , 54 , 55 , 56 ; class base 56–68 ; Ch’in Dynasty 57 , 63 ; collapse 60 ; Ch’in emperor decree on execution for dissident intellectuals 59 ; executions 60 ; Ch’in Empire 54 , 115 ; Han Dynasty 57 , collapses 61 ; revival of trade 106 ; T’ang Dynasty 107 ; reasons for collapse 113 ; cycles in its history 109 ; Sung Dynasty 108 , 110–115 ; Ming economy 116 ; epic sea voyages 221 , 223 ; agricultural and industrial advance 221 , 222 ; crisis of seventeenth century 222 ; Manchu Dynasty 224–225 , 359 ; Manchu Empire 450 ; reaction to British threats 260 ; colonial spheres of influence 394 ; republic declared 450 ; 1919 control by colonial powers 456 ; capitalists 457 ; workers after First World War 454 ; Communist Party in 1930s and Second World War 555 ; composition of 556 ; peasants’ attitude 555 ; people’s economy 562 ; class divisions in 573 ; economic growth 1945–57 573 ; 1960–65 574 ; embraces market 594 ; 1980s and 1990s 596
Chinampas 166
Cho-yun Hsu quoted on rise of towns in pre-imperial China 57
Christian Democrats 578 ; in Italy 584
Christianity rise of 87–100 ; early and Judaism 92–93 ; and Roman fertility cults 93 ; early acceptance of slavery 94 ; audience for 94–95 ; reasons for growth 93–97 ; martyrs and persecution 98 ; persecution of heretical versions 98–99 ; incorporates Pagan rites 122 ; Nestorian 108 , 113 , 119 ; Arian 119 ; in ancient India 52 ; in pre-Islamic Arabia 123
Christmas ‘truce’ in First World War 411
Christophe, Henri tries to impose near-slavery in Saint-Domingue 312